Common european framework of reference for languages: learning, teaching, assessment

B2
Has acquired a clear, natural, pronunciation and intonation.
B1
Pronunciation is clearly intelligible even if a foreign accent is sometimes evident and occasional
mispronunciations occur. 
A2
Pronunciation is generally clear enough to be understood despite a noticeable foreign accent, but
conversational partners will need to ask for repetition from time to time.
A1
Pronunciation of a very limited repertoire of learnt words and phrases can be understood with some
effort by native speakers used to dealing with speakers of his/her language group.
5.2.1.5
Orthographic competence
involves a knowledge of and skill in the perception and production of the symbols of
which written texts are composed. The writing systems of all European languages are
based on the alphabetic principle, though those of some other languages follow an id-
eographic (logographic) principle (e.g. Chinese) or a consonantal principle (e.g. Arabic).
For alphabetic systems, learners should know and be able to perceive and produce:
•
the form of letters in printed and cursive forms in both upper and lower case
•
the proper spelling of words, including recognised contracted forms
•
punctuation marks and their conventions of use
•
typographical conventions and varieties of font, etc.
•
logographic signs in common use (e.g. @, &, $, etc.)
5.2.1.6
Orthoepic competence
Conversely, users required to read aloud a prepared text, or to use in speech words first
encountered in their written form, need to be able to produce a correct pronunciation
from the written form. This may involve:
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:
•
what new phonological skills are required of the learner;
•
what is the relative importance of sounds and prosody;
•
whether phonetic accuracy and fluency are an early learning objective or developed as a
longer term objective.
The user/learner’s competences
117

•
knowledge of spelling conventions
•
ability to consult a dictionary and a knowledge of the conventions used there for the
representation of pronunciation
•
knowledge of the implications of written forms, particularly punctuation marks, for
phrasing and intonation
•
ability to resolve ambiguity (homonyms, syntactic ambiguities, etc.) in the light of
the context
ORTHOGRAPHIC CONTROL
C2
Writing is orthographically free of error.
C1
Layout, paragraphing and punctuation are consistent and helpful.
Spelling is accurate, apart from occasional slips of the pen.
B2
Can produce clearly intelligible continuous writing which follows standard layout and paragraphing
conventions.
Spelling and punctuation are reasonably accurate but may show signs of mother tongue influence.
B1
Can produce continuous writing which is generally intelligible throughout.
Spelling, punctuation and layout are accurate enough to be followed most of the time. 
A2
Can copy short sentences on everyday subjects – e.g. directions how to get somewhere.
Can write with reasonable phonetic accuracy (but not necessarily fully standard spelling) short words
that are in his/her oral vocabulary. 
A1
Can copy familiar words and short phrases e.g. simple signs or instructions, names of everyday objects,
names of shops and set phrases used regularly.
Can spell his/her address, nationality and other personal details.
5.2.2
Sociolinguistic competence
Sociolinguistic competence is concerned with the knowledge and skills required to deal
with the social dimension of language use. As was remarked with regard to sociocultu-
ral  competence,  since  language  is  a  sociocultural  phenomenon,  much  of  what  is  con-
tained in the Framework, particularly in respect of the sociocultural, is of relevance to
sociolinguistic competence. The matters treated here are those specifically relating to
language use and not dealt with elsewhere: linguistic markers of social relations; polite-
ness  conventions;  expressions  of  folk-wisdom;  register  differences;  and  dialect  and
accent.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state: 
•
the orthographic and orthoepic needs of learners in relation to their use of spoken and
written varieties of language, and their need to convert text from spoken to written form
and vice versa.
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
118

5.2.2.1
Linguistic markers of social relations
These are of course widely divergent in different languages and cultures, depending on
such factors as a) relative status, b) closeness of relation, c) register of discourse, etc. The
examples given below for English are not universally applicable and may or may not have
equivalence in other languages.
•
use and choice of greetings:
on arrival, e.g. Hello! Good morning!
introductions, e.g. How do you do?
leave-taking, e.g. Good-bye . . . See you later
•
use and choice of address forms:
frozen, e.g. My Lord, Your Grace
formal, e.g. Sir, Madam, Miss, Dr, Professor (+ surname)
informal, e.g. first name only, such as John! Susan!
informal, e.g.
no address form
familiar, e.g. dear, darling; (popular) mate, love
peremptory, e.g. surname only, such as Smith! You (there)!
ritual insult, e.g. you stupid idiot! (often affectionate)
•
conventions for turntaking
•
use and choice of expletives (e.g. Dear, dear!, My God!, Bloody Hell!, etc.)
5.2.2.2
Politeness conventions
Politeness conventions provide one of the most important reasons for departing from the
straightforward application of the ‘co-operative principle’ (see section 5.2.3.1). They vary
from one culture to another and are a frequent source of inter-ethnic misunderstanding,
especially when polite expressions are literally interpreted.
1.
‘positive’ politeness, e.g.:
•
showing interest in a person’s well being;
•
sharing experiences and concerns, ‘troubles talk’;
•
expressing admiration, affection, gratitude;
•
offering gifts, promising future favours, hospitality;
2.
‘negative’ politeness, e.g.:
•
avoiding face-threatening behaviour (dogmatism, direct orders, etc.);
•
expressing regret, apologising for face-threatening behaviour (correction, contra-
diction, prohibitions, etc.);
•
using hedges, etc. (e.g. ‘ I think’, tag questions, etc.);
3.
appropriate use of ‘please’, ‘thank you’, etc.;
4.
impoliteness (deliberate flouting of politeness conventions), e.g.:
•
bluntness, frankness;
•
expressing contempt, dislike;
The user/learner’s competences
119

•
strong complaint and reprimand;
•
venting anger, impatience;
•
asserting superiority.
5.2.2.3
Expressions of folk wisdom
These fixed formulae, which both incorporate and reinforce common attitudes, make a
significant contribution to popular culture. They are frequently used, or perhaps more
often referred to or played upon, for instance in newspaper headlines. A knowledge of
this accumulated folk wisdom, expressed in language assumed to be known to all, is a
significant component of the linguistic aspect of sociocultural competence.
•
proverbs, e.g. a stitch in time saves nine
•
idioms, e.g. a sprat to catch a mackerel
•
familiar quotations, e.g. a man’s a man for a’ that
•
expressions of: 
belief, such as – weathersaws, e.g. Fine before seven, rain by eleven
attitudes, such as – clichés, e.g. It takes all sorts to make a world
values, e.g. It’s not cricket.
Graffiti, T-shirt slogans, TV catch phrases, work-place cards and posters now often have
this function.
5.2.2.4
Register differences
The term ‘register’ is used to refer to systematic differences between varieties of language
used in different contexts. This is a very broad concept, which could cover what is here
dealt with under ‘tasks’ (section 4.3), ‘text-types’ (4.6.4) and ‘macrofunctions’(5.2.3.2). In
this section we deal with differences in level of formality:
•
frozen, e.g. Pray silence for His Worship the Mayor!
•
formal, e.g. May we now come to order, please.
•
neutral, e.g. Shall we begin?
•
informal, e.g. Right. What about making a start?
•
familiar, e.g. O.K. Let’s get going.
•
intimate, e.g. Ready dear?
In early learning (say up to level B1), a relatively neutral register is appropriate, unless
there are compelling reasons otherwise. It is this register that native speakers are likely
to use towards and expect from foreigners and strangers generally. Acquaintance with
more formal or more familiar registers is likely to come over a period of time, perhaps
through the reading of different text-types, particularly novels, at first as a receptive com-
petence. Some caution should be exercised in using more formal or more familiar regis-
ters, since their inappropriate use may well lead to misinterpretation and ridicule.
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
120

5.2.2.5
Dialect and accent
Sociolinguistic competence also includes the ability to recognise the linguistic markers
of, for example:
•
social class
•
regional provenance
•
national origin
•
ethnicity
•
occupational group
Such markers include:
•
lexicon, e.g. Scottish wee for ‘small’
•
grammar, e.g. Cockney I ain’t seen nothing for ‘I haven’t seen anything’
•
phonology, e.g. New York boid for ‘bird’
•
vocal characteristics (rhythm, loudness, etc.)
•
paralinguistics
•
body language
No European language communities are entirely homogenous. Different regions have
their peculiarities in language and culture. These are usually most marked in those who
live purely local lives and therefore correlate with social class, occupation and educa-
tional level. Recognition of such dialectal features therefore gives significant clues as to
the interlocutor’s characteristics. Stereotyping plays a large role in this process. It can be
reduced by the development of intercultural skills (see section 5.1.2.2). Learners will in
the course of time also come into contact with speakers of various provenances. Before
themselves adopting dialect forms they should be aware of their social connotations and
of the need for coherence and consistency.
The scaling of items for aspects of sociolinguistic competence proved problematic (see
Appendix B). Items successfully scaled are shown in the illustrative scale below. As can
be seen, the bottom part of the scale concerns only markers of social relations and polite-
ness conventions. From Level B2, users are then found able to express themselves ade-
quately  in  language  which  is  sociolinguistically  appropriate  to  the  situations  and
persons involved, and begin to acquire an ability to cope with variation of speech, plus a
greater degree of control over register and idiom.
The user/learner’s competences
121

SOCIOLINGUISTIC APPROPRIATENESS
Has a good command of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms with awareness of connotative levels
of meaning.
C2
Appreciates fully the sociolinguistic and sociocultural implications of language used by native speakers
and can react accordingly.
Can mediate effectively between speakers of the target language and that of his/her community of origin
taking account of sociocultural and sociolinguistic differences.
Can recognise a wide range of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms, appreciating register shifts;
may, however, need to confirm occasional details, especially if the accent is unfamiliar.
C1
Can follow films employing a considerable degree of slang and idiomatic usage.
Can use language flexibly and effectively for social purposes, including emotional, allusive and joking
usage.
Can express him or herself confidently, clearly and politely in a formal or informal register, appropriate
to the situation and person(s) concerned.
B2
Can with some effort keep up with and contribute to group discussions even when speech is fast and
colloquial.
Can sustain relationships with native speakers without unintentionally amusing or irritating them or
requiring them to behave other than they would with a native speaker.
Can express him or herself appropriately in situations and avoid crass errors of formulation.
Can perform and respond to a wide range of language functions, using their most common exponents in
a neutral register.
B1
Is aware of the salient politeness conventions and acts appropriately.
Is aware of, and looks out for signs of, the most significant differences between the customs, usages,
attitudes, values and beliefs prevalent in the community concerned and those of his or her own.
Can perform and respond to basic language functions, such as information exchange and requests and
express opinions and attitudes in a simple way.
Can socialise simply but effectively using the simplest common expressions and following basic routines.
A2
Can handle very short social exchanges, using everyday polite forms of greeting and address. Can make
and respond to invitations, suggestions, apologies, etc.
A1
Can establish basic social contact by using the simplest everyday polite forms of: greetings and farewells;
introductions; saying please, thank you, sorry, etc.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:
•
what range of greetings, address forms and expletives learners should need/be equipped/be 
required to a) recognise b) evaluate sociologically c) use themselves;
•
which politeness conventions learners should need/be equipped/be required to a) recognise
and understand b) use themselves;
•
which forms of impoliteness learners should need/be equipped/be required to a) recognise
and understand b) use themselves and in which situations to do so;
•
which proverbs, clichés and folk idioms learners should need/be equipped/be required to a)
recognise and understand b) use themselves;
•
which registers learners should need/be equipped/be required to a) recognise b) use;
•
which social groups in the target community and, perhaps, in the international community
the learner should need/be equipped/be required to recognise by their use of language.
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
122

5.2.3
Pragmatic competences
Pragmatic  competences  are  concerned  with  the  user/learner’s  knowledge  of  the  prin-
ciples according to which messages are:
a) organised, structured and arranged (‘discourse competence’);
b) used to perform communicative functions (‘functional competence’);
c)
sequenced according to interactional and transactional schemata (‘design competence’).
5.2.3.1
Discourse  competence is  the  ability  of  a  user/learner  to  arrange  sentences  in
sequence so as to produce coherent stretches of language. It includes knowledge of and
ability to control the ordering of sentences in terms of:
•
topic/focus;
•
given/new;
•
‘natural’ sequencing: e.g. temporal:
‘natural’ sequencing: e.g. 
•
He fell over and I hit him, as against
‘natural’ sequencing: e.g. e.g. 
•
I hit him and he fell over.
•
cause/effect (invertible) – prices are rising – people want higher wages.
•
ability to structure and manage discourse in terms of:
thematic organisation;
coherence and cohesion;
logical ordering;
style and register;
rhetorical effectiveness;
the 
‘co-operative principle’ (Grice 1975): ‘make your contribution such as is required, at
the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange
in which you are engaged, by observing the following maxims:
•
quality (try to make your contribution one that is true);
•
quantity (make your contribution as informative as necessary, but not more);
•
relevance (do not say what is not relevant);
•
manner (be brief and orderly, avoid obscurity and ambiguity)’.
Departure from these criteria for straightforward and efficient communication should
be for a specific purpose rather than because of inability to meet them.
•
Text design: knowledge of the design conventions in the community concerning, e.g.:
how information is structured in realising the various macrofunctions (description,
narrative, exposition, etc.);
how stories, anecdotes, jokes, etc. are told;
how a case is built up (in law, debate, etc.);
how written texts (essays, formal letters, etc.) are laid out, signposted and sequenced.
A  good  deal  of  mother  tongue  education  is  devoted  to  building  a  young  person’s  dis-
course skills. In learning a foreign language, a learner is likely to start with short turns,
usually of single sentence length. At higher levels of proficiency, the development of dis-
course competence, the components of which are indicated in the section, becomes of
increasing importance.
The user/learner’s competences
123

Illustrative scales are available for the following aspects of discourse competence:
•
Flexibility to circumstances;
•
Turntaking (also presented under interaction strategies);
•
Thematic development;
•
Coherence and cohesion.
FLEXIBILITY
C2
Shows great flexibility reformulating ideas in differing linguistic forms to give emphasis, to differentiate
according to the situation, interlocutor, etc. and to eliminate ambiguity.
C1
As B2+
Can adjust what he/she says and the means of expressing it to the situation and the recipient and adopt
a level of formality appropriate to the circumstances.
B2
Can adjust to the changes of direction, style and emphasis normally found in conversation. 
Can vary formulation of what he/she wants to say. 
Can adapt his/her expression to deal with less routine, even difficult, situations.
B1
Can exploit a wide range of simple language flexibly to express much of what he/she wants.
Can adapt well rehearsed memorised simple phrases to particular circumstances through limited lexical
substitution. 
A2
Can expand learned phrases through simple recombinations of their elements.
A1
No descriptor available
TURNTAKING
C2
As C1
C1
Can select a suitable phrase from a readily available range of discourse functions to preface his/her
remarks appropriately in order to get the floor, or to gain time and keep the floor whilst thinking.
Can intervene appropriately in discussion, exploiting appropriate language to do so.
Can initiate, maintain and end discourse appropriately with effective turntaking.
B2
Can initiate discourse, take his/her turn when appropriate and end conversation when he/she needs to,
though he/she may not always do this elegantly. 
Can use stock phrases (e.g. ‘That’s a difficult question to answer’) to gain time and keep the turn whilst
formulating what to say. 
Can intervene in a discussion on a familiar topic, using a suitable phrase to get the floor.
B1
Can initiate, maintain and close simple face-to-face conversation on topics that are familiar or of
personal interest.
Can use simple techniques to start, maintain, or end a short conversation. 
Can initiate, maintain and close simple, face-to-face conversation.
A2
Can ask for attention.
A1
No descriptor available
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
124

THEMATIC DEVELOPMENT
C2
As C1
C1
Can give elaborate descriptions and narratives, integrating sub-themes, developing particular points
and rounding off with an appropriate conclusion.
B2
Can develop a clear description or narrative, expanding and supporting his/her main points with
relevant supporting detail and examples.
B1
Can reasonably fluently relate a straightforward narrative or description as a linear sequence of points.
A2
Can tell a story or describe something in a simple list of points.
A1
No descriptor available
COHERENCE AND COHESION
C2
Can create coherent and cohesive text making full and appropriate use of a variety of organisational
patterns and a wide range of cohesive devices. 
C1
Can produce clear, smoothly flowing, well-structured speech, showing controlled use of organisational
patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.
Can use a variety of linking words efficiently to mark clearly the relationships between ideas.
B2
Can use a limited number of cohesive devices to link his/her utterances into clear, coherent discourse,
though there may be some ‘jumpiness’ in a long contribution.