Contents introduction chapter phraseological units with names of animals and their distinguishing features

CHAPTER 1.
PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS WITH NAMES OF ANIMALS AND THEIR DISTINGUISHING FEATURES.
1.1. Phraseological units with names of animals and their distinguishing features in English.

Phraseology (gr. phrasis - "expression", logos - "science") - a linguistic discipline that studies stable combinations of words with a completely or partially rethought meaning - phraseological units (or phraseological units). Phraseology studies only such combinations of words that exist in speech, the total meaning of which is not equal to the sum of the individual meanings of the words that make up the phraseological phrase (“give in the paw” - give exactly a bribe, and nothing else.).

A phraseological unit, or phraseological unit, is a phrase that is stable in composition and structure, lexically indivisible and integral in meaning, performing the function of a separate lexical unit. Phraseologism is used as a whole, a ready-made combination of words that is not subject to further decomposition and usually does not allow rearrangement of its parts within itself.
Phraseological units include phrases of the following types:
• idioms (drink till all's blue, drink smb. under the table, burn the candle at both ends);
• collocations (torrential rain, make a decision, a grain of truth, raise a question);
• proverbs (quieter you go - you will continue, don't get into your sleigh); sayings (here, grandmother, and St. George's day; the ice has broken!);
• grammatical phraseological units (almost; almost; whatever it may be);
• phrase schemes (… he is in Africa too…; to all…-am…;… like…).
As an independent linguistic discipline, phraseology arose relatively recently. The tasks of phraseology as a linguistic discipline include a comprehensive study of the phraseological fund of a particular language. Important aspects of the study of this science are: the stability of phraseological units, the consistency of phraseology and the semantic structure of phraseological units, their origin and main functions. A particularly complex branch of phraseology is the translation of phraseological units from language to language, which requires considerable experience in the study of this discipline. Phraseology develops the principles of identifying phraseological units, methods for their study, classification and phraseography - descriptions in dictionaries. Phraseology uses various research methods, such as component analysis of meaning. Phraseology offers various types of classifications of the phraseological composition of a language, depending on the properties of phraseological units and methods for their study.
The subject of the history of phraseology is the study of the primary, initial forms and meanings of phraseological units, determining their sources for all available monuments, identifying the areas of their use in different eras of the existence of the language, as well as establishing the volume of the phraseological composition and its systematic ordering in one or another historical era of the development of the language.
Unfortunately, in the English and American linguistic literature there are few works specially devoted to the theory of phraseology, but the most significant works (A. MacKay, W. Weinreich, L.P. Smith) do not raise such fundamental questions as scientifically based criteria for identifying phraseological units , the ratio of phraseological units and words, the consistency of phraseology, phraseological variability, phrase formation, the method of studying phraseology, etc. English and American scientists also do not raise the question of phraseology as a linguistic science. This explains the lack of a name for this discipline in English.
Phraseologisms are an integral and specially distinguished component of the language, the brightest, original, unusual, “individual”, culturally significant and nationally specific, capable of expressing in a concentrated way not only the features of a given language, but also its speakers, their attitude, mindset, mentality, national character and style of thinking.
Phraseology as a branch of linguistic science appeared and developed in English speaking countries. English and American linguists collect various words, word-groups, other units presenting some interest. These units are described as phraseological units. No attempt is made to investigate them as a separate class and lay down a reliable criterion to distinguish between word-groups and phraseological units. Investigation of English vocabulary was initiated in our country by prof. A.V. Kunin whose dictionary of English idioms has valuable information in this branch of linguistics. Phraseology as a branch of linguistic science is closely connected with Semantics, Grammar and Lexicology. It has its own methods of investigation and problems for analysis.
The first attempt to place the study of word-groups on scientific basis was made by the outstanding Russian linguist A. Schachmatov. His work was continued by Academician V. V. Vinogradov who was the first scientist to research phraseological units. Investigation of English phraseology was initiated and continued by Professor A.V. Kunin. Then many scholars followed him: I.V. Arnold, R.S. Ginzburg, G.B. Antrushina, N.N. Amosova, I.V. Zykova and others. They study only phraseological units as a whole.
Phraseological units in English, most are native English revolutions, the authors of which are unknown.
For linguo-cultural studies of particular importance to the analysis of stable combinations, which have in their composition of animalistic components, since it is in phraseological units with names of animals most clearly reflect national cultural features of different nations, when the images of animals in different languages are endowed with motivated and unmotivated properties, based on the vision of a man of peace and his role in it. Native English zoomorphic phraseological units connected with the traditions, customs and beliefs of the British people, as well as with the realities, myths, historical facts, for example, halcyon days — calm, peaceful days, quiet time (according to ancient legend, the Kingfisher displays Chicks in a nest floating at sea at the winter solstice, and during this period, about two weeks, the sea is perfectly calm); white elephant – a burdensome or wasteful of the property, a gift he didn't know how to get rid of, a burden (the origin is connected with the legend that the king of Siam, desiring to ruin any of his subjects, gave him the sacred white elephant, the contents of which are very expensive); a black sheep — black sheep, a disgrace to the family (according to the old belief that a black sheep was marked by the devil); as well be hanged for a sheep as a lamb — if it's meant to be hung for a sheep, why not steal at the same time and the lamb (echo of the old English law under which the theft of a sheep was punishable by death by hanging); an unlicked cub — green, spring chicken, milk on the lip (turnover is associated with a medieval legend, according to which the cubs are born shapeless and the bear, licking them, gives them a better shape.
Zoomorphism in different languages describe the appearance, character and style of behavior, the professional activities of a person, his attitude to the opposite sex, family, children. English shows a person as individuality, personality, accentuating the positive qualities such as competitiveness, independence, denouncing fraud and dishonesty, for example, a tiger is a dangerous opponent, a strong player; a lone wolf — a person acting alone; barracuda — selfish, dishonest businessman, a predator; shark — sharper, swindler, extortionist; customs official; pickpocket; weasel — weasel, slimy, toady; stalking horse — a figurehead, a screen.
Quite a large number of English zoomorphic phraseological units have full or partial equivalents in other languages, because of the coincidence of mental mapping of reality in carriers of different languages and common elements of culture – the so-called "cultural universals".
The image-symbol, identifying the animal, was influenced by various beliefs. So could be two or even several opinions about this or that animal. In our opinion, of particular interest are phraseological components-the names of animals, have a dual nature, that is characterizing a person both positively and negatively. Analysis of selected phraseological units that lead to the conclusion that in the sphere of English, there is a number of names of animals and birds that describe the person either only positively or only negatively, however, is the most numerous layer of zoomorphism having the dual evaluative connotation.
Thus, positive quality mark such animals and birds as lamb – as innocent as a lamb; dove – as harmless as a dove; hank – as watchful as a hawk and others. Only negative qualities characterize the following names of animals: hog, pig – behave like a hog, as fat as a pig; snake –be lower than a snake’s belly; wolf – as greedy as a wolf; goat – make a goat of one; monkey – as tricky as a monkey.
The most common zoomorphisms in English phraseological picture of the world are cat, dog, horse, lion, bird, goose and some others. These zoomorphism represent positive and negative qualities of a person, it is therefore very important context the perception of a particular phraseological units and their correct use in speech.
Let us consider some examples of the contradictory relations of Englishmen to the same animal. So, the oldest domestic animal in almost all cultures it is the dog, which is why the comparison with the dog are the most numerous. Negative connotations bring ideas about the dog as a persecuted being, dependent from the person, sometimes living in the toughest conditions, designed for the protection of housing, hunting, etc. (lead a dog's life – to have been afflicted; treat like a dog – to be unkind to anyone; dressed up like a dog's dinner – dressed vulgar). At the same time, the British appreciated the loyalty, friendliness, endurance dog (die for one dog to be very loyal; funny dog – funny guy). Similarly, you can analyze semantic features of FE with zoomorphism "cat": has long being close to someone, the cat has earned the trust and love of man because of its softness, intelligence, prudence (as tame as a cat is quite tame; as wary as a cat – very careful), but, being wild animals by nature, cats are peculiar cunning, deceit (cat in the pan is a traitor; cat shuts its eyes when stealing cream to close their eyes to their sins). Phraseological component "horse" has mostly positive connotations, which is associated with the role of the horse farm hand, his diligence and endurance (strong as a horse strong as an ox. willing horse – slogger), but there are also values associated with other areas of the horse's life, with both positive and negative interpretation, for example, jump (ride the fore horse is to be in front; a dark horse – "dark horse", about a man whose inner quality is not known). Similarly, we can analyze many other English phraseological units with names of animals having the dual nature of values.
The research results we propose to systematize the following table (you should pay attention to the fact that it's not the whole list of idioms of this type):

Phraseological units with names of animals	The dominant evaluative connotation
	+	-
Bird	Bird of paradise, blithe as a bird, early bird, very bird likes its own nest, keep the bird in one’s bosom, like a bird, old bird, wild old bird, a dolly bird	Bird of evil omen, bird of one’s own hatching, bird of pray, get the big bird, jail bird, little bird, as free as a bird
Cat	Baited cat may grow as fierce as a lion; cat’s meow; cat with nine lives; fight like a wild cat; have more lives than a cat; like a cat that has had cream; as lithe as a cat; as tame as a cat; as wary as a cat; watch something as a cat watches a mouse	Cat in the pan; cat shuts its eyes when stealing cream; cat’s paw; Cheshire cat; fat cat; flog the cat; live under the cat’s foot; as melancholy as a cat; old cat; whip the cat; be a copy cat; the cat among the pigeons; a gay cat
Dog	Be like dog and shadow; die dog for one; every dog has its day; funny dog; happy dog; there is life in old dog yet; top dog	A dirty dog; a lame dog; dog in the manager; dog that fetches will carry; dumb dog; idle dog; lead a dog’s life; miserable dog; mysterious dog; rotten dog; sly dog; surly dog; talk a dog’s hind leg off; treat like a dog; wake a sleeping dog; yellow dog
Goose	All right on the goose; can’t say a boo to a goose	All one’s geese are swan; cooked goose; as silly as a goose; make a goose of oneself
Horse	Strong as a horse; willing horse; work like a horse; ride the fore horse	A dark horse; to be on one’s high horse; horse laugh; play horse

In British culture the man is often characterized by his professional activity, therefore in the English language many words zoomorphism among professional jargon, describes the political and business activities of man: bull is a speculator who plays the Bui"; bear — stockbroker playing for decline; stag — a speculator in securities, buying shares sold company, with the intention to resell; lame duck means a policy whose time has favorited the post comes to an end; poodle — lover (party, person, samskivert before holding the power); the person who wants to depend on or belong to any power structure; a fat cat — a wealthy and privileged people. The professional activities of women submitted using the following zoomorphism: canary Canary; bunny girl — a waitress in a nightclub, dressed in a special costume rabbit: ears and a short fluffy tail.

A special view of the world manifests itself in English in the form of labeling historical figures with the help of zoomorphism: the Hog was Richard III, the Lion Heart Richard the lion Heart, the Swan of Avon — Shakespeare.
National-cultural characteristics (severity and pedantry of the British) are expressed in such phraseological units with names of animals, as if wishes were horses, beggars would ride — if wishes horses, beggars could ride a horse; pigs might fly — it happens that the cows; if the sky falls we'll catch larks — if wishes were horses.
There are also zoomorphic images to denote exaggeration of anyone's influence, importance, unheard stories, stories, unreal temporary work: to have the wolf in the stomach to be hungry as a wolf; cock and bull story — an unbelievable story told to deceive someone; shoot (throw) the bull — to carry nonsense, to ramble; no room to swing a cat — no room to fall; enough to make a cat laugh — and the dead can laugh; very funny; shaggy-dog story — a long joke with an absurd ending.
English culture does not tend to limit the rights of the person, the person is valued as an integral, independent, for example, bring your own bears — do what you want, I'm not afraid, to be a bear for punishment — not fear of punishment, to go ahead in spite of the authorities.
For example, phraseological units with names of animals showing the relationship of a man and woman, stand out the models of their behavior. English emphasizes direct sexual aspect, considering man as a producer and user of: horse — active male; wolf — womanizer, tape, a seducer, a man with intense sexual life, jolly dog — womanizer, ladies man, funny guy. The woman primarily as mother, wife: tigress is a fierce woman (especially one that protects its children). Thus, confirmed the assumption about the influence of the industrial and democratic order, urban lifestyle in England on the specifics of ideas about man and woman.
English language a tremendous impact translations of the Bible. For centuries the Bible was the most widely read and quoted in England by the book; not only separate words, but whole idiomatic expression entered the English language from the pages of the Bible. Biblical phraseological units are fully assimilated and borrowed. Among them are many and zoomorphic phraseological units: can the leopard change his spots? — can a leopard change his spotted skin? (Russian equivalent: dogs); cast pearls before swine to cast pearls before swine; a wolf in sheep's clothing — wolf in sheep's clothing.
The appropriate phraseological units are the biblical prototype may be created as a result of rethinking it, for example, the turnover to kill the fatted calf in the parable of the prodigal son is used in the literal meaning of "to saklat fatted calf." Later, this spirit has assumed a new importance to treat best home. Some phraseological units date back to the biblical story, which mentions only one component of the idiom. For example, the phraseological unit is a spoon of tar in a barrel of honey the spoon of tar in barrel of honey is based on the following biblical allegory: Dead flies cause the ointment from the pharmacy to send back to smelly taste, so does a little folly with his wisdom and honor to the reputation of [28,52].
A large number of English phraseological units wih names of animals connected with ancient mythology, history and literature. Many of these units are international in nature, as found in a number of languages. To ancient mythology date back, for example, the following rpm: Man is a wolf to man (Plautus) man is a wolf (Plautus). The expression associated with the Trojan war is the Trojan Horse — a Trojan horse, hidden danger.
A number of expressions goes back to the fables of Aesop and other Greek tales and fables: kill the goose that laid (lays) the golden eggs — kill the goose that lays the Golden eggs; cry wolf too often (TJ. cry wolf) — to raise a false alarm (from the fable about the shepherd, who amused himself by deceiving people shouting "Wolf! Wolf!"); the lion's share — lion's share; cherish (nourish or warm) a viper in one's bosom — to warm a snake on his chest; an ass in lion's skin the donkey in the lion's skin; a fly on the wheel — people overestimating their participation in any case (the expression is taken from Aesop's fable "the stagecoach and the fly"); the mountain has brought forth a mouse mountain brought forth a mouse; a dog in the manger — dog in the manger.
Some phraseological units with names of animals go back to the works of Roman writers: a snake in the grass — snake in the grass, insidious, hidden enemy.
The most often used names of animals and birds taken on a symbolic value. A number of names of animals and birds, become symbols that are associated primarily with the peculiarities of the various characteristics of a person. Considering the names they are divided into two groups.
The first group includes the symbols for the positive qualities of the person. So, modern Brits can call a hare, tiger or to refer to these images to characterize something quickly can make a person. Associative-shaped base animals such as mule, horse, bull and bear are used to describe a strong man.
The second group consists of symbols associated with negative qualities. If an Englishman calls a person bear (bear), it builds associative-shaped association on grounds such as physical and/or mental clumsiness, rudeness. Calling man lion (Leo), the British refer to the corresponding stereotypical image, the main characteristic of which is cruelty. Associative-shaped base of such an animal, as magpie (magpie) is used in English society to characterize talkative person.
In English there are a number of names of animals are associated in the English society with the qualities of having a very negative evaluation, and are submitted to the British a serious fault or deviation from the norms of social behavior, so they can be used to insult a person. This group of animal names is considered by us as invective vocabulary.
Invective, as a rule, is culturally based in nature . Therefore, the ratio of codified — uncodified (resolved — unresolved) is always nationally specific. Due to its emotionally expressive semantics of invective, expressing in extreme form judgments about a person, clearly illustrate the system of values/a cultural community.
The development of polysemy of phraseological units with names of animals is performed by transferring the values of the names. Historically, secondary values are portable, and often figuratively, but many of them are no longer understood in their original qualities. The semantic peculiarity of these adhesions is that they are always dominated by animal component, standing out due to the opposition of representative and figurative meanings. For example, in the phraseological units with names of animals: Let sleeping dog lie — do Not Wake the sleeping cat sleeping dog in the English language is in the meaning of unpleasant mystery — something to be feared. In this case, the denotative meaning remains unchanged, while the imagery changes depending on what associations or that animal of a native speaker. The representation of the phantom menace finds expression in phraseological units Beware of a silent dog & still water, Dumb dogs are dangerous — still water runs deep. In English a latent threat associated with the sleeping dog, and in Russian – with the evil spirit that goes back to popular folklore, variously reflecting the picture of the world.
In the proverb “Agree like cats & dogs”: “to live like cat and dog” English dog is the specialization and restriction of meaning (etc.-Engl. dogga) meant a certain breed of dog and the characteristic action with her hunting. Although now familiar with the word hound, as in the proverb, which is an example of the development of values, logical motive. Originally this saying was used in Argo hunters, and then, owing to the extension of figurative meanings, have acquired a more abstract meaning: Run with the hare & hunt with the hounds — to Serve two gods.
In the idiom Sleep a dog — sleep — sensitive to sleep too seriously dog component in the context of human metaphors reflects the characteristic of the dogs a light sleep. Analogues of this Association is not observed in other languages, because the category of imagery is not linguistic, and logical-psychological, therefore the components of its individual elements do not always find adequate expression in different languages.
It is characteristic that from a common abstract sense of pharseological units with names of animals follows pejoratively portable value. This leads to the fact that many phraseological units with names of animals as human metaphors have gesture instead of word color: Look like a starved cat; Smelly cat.
In this case, the cat means evil woman. This image is based on real associations, since the witches in folklore often appear in the form of a black cat. The value of its figurative insofar as dominated by emotive function.
Also on real associations emerged in English phraseological units with names of animals, denoting dejection: As melancholy as a cat falling into a depression
It is not difficult to explain the connection between these phenomena. The cat is associated with calmness and propensity for solitude. A man seeks solitude, when he is despaired. An example of illogical comparison: No room to swing a cat — nowhere to turn.
Nowhere to turn is tied by the tail cat image, of course, fanciful, but it is the high subjectivity and maintains the brightness sayings. Fantastic comparison makes the saying very expressive emotional agent endowed with semantic-stylistic nuances of irony, facetiousness, hyperbole. The same stylistic function is an obvious exaggeration, exaggeration in the next phraseological units with names of animals: Enough to make a cat speak — amazing. The image of a cat there relevant the image of an animal, dumb creature that can suddenly speak, if a miracle happens.
Some phraseological units with names of animals were created by writers. For example, in L. Carroll's tale "Alice in Wonderland" Cheshire cat says: A cat may look at a king — View anyone is not forbidden. In this case, the word cat takes on the value of every person. Another expression has been borrowed by way of replication from the French tale by Perrault: Puss in boоts.
Generally, in English the vast majority of phraseological units with names of animals is associated with images of animals such as dog and cat. This is due to the fact that these animals were first domesticated and were always near the person. Therefore, the development of connotation started with a gradation of the concepts on the scale of abstraction. Semantic process was a direct response to the logical, cognitive process and went with it in parallel