Course paper Done by; Sariboyeva Sevinch 311-group student Introduction
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- Most frequently, neologism is explained and defined as ‘a new word which seems quite clear and simple
- Word-composition
- Acronymy
- Borrowing
- Slang, argot
- Chapter II Formation of Neologism in News English
- Chapter III Various Styles of Writing and Speaking in English
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Course paper Done by; Sariboyeva Sevinch 311-group student Introduction Neologisms are the words which denotes new meaning to other languages. The well-known “Dictionary of Linguistic Terms” by O.S. Akhmanova provides a more detailed definition, where there are distinguished two kinds of neologisms. The first definition runs as follows: “neologism is a word or phrase created for defining a new (unknown before) object or expressing a new notion”, the second one says that it is “a new word or expression that has not received the right for citizenship in the national language and thus is perceived as belonging to a specific, often substandard style of speech” The linguistic encyclopaedia by V.N. Yartseva offers a broader definition, stating “neologisms are words, word meanings or collocations that appeared in a certain period in a language or that are once used (‘occasional' words) in a text or speech act”
History and meaning The term neologism is first attested in English in 1772, borrowed from French néologisme (1734). A proponent of a new word or doctrine may be called a neologist, such as United States' President Donald Trump being called the "neologist-in-chief" (itself a neologism, combining neologist and commander-in-chief) a reference to his creation of neologisms such as his Twitter post about "covfefe".[9] In an academic sense, there is no professional Neologist, because the study of such things (cultural or ethnic vernacular, for example) is interdisciplinary. Anyone such as a lexicographer or an etymologist might study neologisms, how their uses span the scope of human expression, and how, due to science and technology, they spread more rapidly than ever before in the present times.[10] The term neologism has a broader meaning which also includes "a word which has gained a new meaning". Sometimes, the latter process is called semantic shifting, or semantic extension.[14][15] Neologisms are distinct from a person's idiolect, one's unique patterns of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. Neologisms are usually introduced when it is found that a specific notion is lacking a term, or when the existing vocabulary lacks detail, or when a speaker is unaware of the existing vocabulary.[16] The law, governmental bodies, and technology have a relatively high frequency of acquiring neologisms. Another trigger that motivates the coining of a neologism is to disambiguate a term which may be unclear due to having many meanings. Chapter I Neologisms in the Modern English Language Most frequently, neologism is explained and defined as ‘a new word' which seems quite clear and simple. However, when it is necessary to identify which words can be regarded as new ones and which not, there arises a problem. The problem lies in the relativity of the concept of novelty, newness as it depends on what period is taken into consideration, for how long the word has status of being new, etc. The Ukrainian philologist professor M.I. Mostovystates “there are no clear criteria of defining neologism as a linguistic phenomenon”. As a result, we face a kind of ambiguity at the very beginning of neologism investigation. There, however, are a number of definitions of neologism offered by various linguists, which brings us some clarity in making out neologisms within the vocabulary of English. The well-known “Dictionary of Linguistic Terms” by O.S. Akhmanova provides a more detailed definition, where there are distinguished two kinds of neologisms. The first definition runs as follows: “neologism is a word or phrase created for defining a new (unknown before) object or expressing a new notion”, the second one says that it is “a new word or expression that has not received the right for citizenship in the national language and thus is perceived as belonging to a specific, often substandard style of speech” The linguistic encyclopaedia by V.N. Yartseva offers a broader definition, stating “neologisms are words, word meanings or collocations that appeared in a certain period in a language or that are once used (‘occasional' words) in a text or speech act” The Dutch linguist M. Janssen offers five criteria for defining a neologism:
psychological - “a neologism is a word that is perceived as new by the language community”; lexicographic - “any word that does not appear in the dictionary is considered a neologism”; exclusive definition - “a word not appearing in a pre-determined exclusion lexicon[1] is a neologism” diachronic definition - “any word-form that appears in a recent general language text, and was not previously part of that language is a neologism”; reference corpora definition - “any word-form, which appears in a recent general language text, and does not appear in an established reference corpus of that language is a neologism” In all the definitions, there is mentioned the fact of a novelty for some lexical units as a new word, phrase or expression. Some definitions add the facts of semantic novelty, e.g. new meaning, or even the syntactic one, e.g. new collocations. The difference is chiefly in an extent of newness: either it concerns only the shift in meaning or in a structure too. Therefore, the sphere of difference is more or less clear[1]. The basic ways of forming words in word-derivationare affixation and conversion.Affixationis the formation of a new word with the help of affixes, e.g. heartless (from heart), to overdo (from to do). Conversionis the formation of a new word by bringing a stem of this word into a different formal paradigm, e.g. a fall (from to fall), to slave (from a slave).
Blendingis the formation of a new word by combining parts of two words. Acronymy (or graphical abbreviation) is the formation of a word from the initial letters of a word combination. Back-formationis the formation of a new word by subtracting a real or supposed suffix from the existing words. Coinageis the creation of entirely new words – quite unusual given the competition from all the other, perhaps easier ways ofcreating words. Clipping is the shortening of a longer word, often reducing it to one syllable. Borrowing as a means of replenishing the vocabulary of present-day English is of much lesser importance and is active mainly in the field of scientific terminology. Proper namesenrich the vocabulary. The name of the Prime Minister Tony Blair became a common noun. Blairism(Blairist, Blairite, Blairification) - an economical and politicalprogram led by him. Slang, argotand even certain euphemismshave also been a constant source of language enrichment, although some terms die out before they are admitted to the standard vocabulary [2]. One of the types of word building is compounding, which is a convenient and laconic way to express some ideas, comprised in one word. E.g. set-jetting, noun, travelling to places because they have been the locations for films or TV programmes.
Most have heard of bitcoin, fewer are familiar with blockchain. Bitcoin uses blockchain to form a peer-to-peer (P2P) payment system. Sad rap, noun, a form of slow rap music with emotionally intense lyrics Hopsin is a kind of new rapper who has great potential, but this song just doesn't cut it, there's plenty other sad rap songs that belong in this spot. Ghost driver,noun [C],UK /'gəust ,drarvə/, US /'goʊst ,draι.va-/ a taxi driver who uses a frightening profile photograph to encourage the passenger to cancel the taxi ride. The practice, which has been nicknamed the ghost driver issue, involves scam drivers using gruesome pictures that force users to hit “cancel” when they see who is coming to pick them up, and pay a cancellation fee. Minor types of word building include shortening, acronymy, blending. Shortening that consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts, as a result the new form acquires some linguistic value of its own, blends that combine two words and include the letters or sounds they have in common as a connecting element. E.g. fab lab noun a fabrication laboratory; a science laboratory equipped with the latest digital technology in order to facilitate the learning of all the STEM subjects The ‘Fab Lab' equips students with an array of tools in a small-scale workshop setting that offers personal digital fabrication -a project-based learning method that will allow students to create ‘almost anything.'
Marketers and political pundits are fond of identifying new demographic groups [.] The latest is the Midult – a phrase coined by journalists Emilie McMeekan and Annabel Rivkin to describe a new tribe of women aged 35-55. The Midultis being described as more than just a demographic but a movement and a mindset[3]. So the simple definition of neologism is a new word or expression or a new meaning of a word, also there are three types of it: the first includes only those lexemes which have not existed up to a certain period of time; the second represents the words that have changed their meaning but retained their old form, with their old meaning lost or moved towards secondary importance; the third, circle contains those lexemes which have only added one or more new meanings without losing the significance of the old ones, they present the paradigmatic relations of polysemy. And, due to derivation with the help of affixes and compounding, which is a convenient and laconic way to express some ideas also shortening, acronymy, blending we build neologisms.
With the fast development of science, technology, and economy, new concepts and things come into being, making it hard to describe and reflect new changes. It is in this context that new words are created in News English and spread far and wide. However, no matter how great the changes are, formation of neologisms in News English conforms to the traditional rules of word formation. They are abbreviation, compounding, derivation, loan words, analogy, and meaning transfer. Abbreviation Research shows readers of English news have an average of 3,000 to 5,000 vocabularies in the United States, most of whom are just ordinary people. All that they need is to get a quick glimpse of the brief news. For this ZHOU Li-na, associate professor, master, Department of English Language and Literature, China Youth University of Political Studies. D DAVID PUBLISHING NEOLOGISM IN NEWS ENGLISH 293 purpose, News English employs simple words to make the news more understandable and time saving. In addition, the authors of the News English have to make their report short and brief due to the limit of space. Short and small as they are, those words can express meanings clearly and at the same time attract people’s attention. Abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase. It consists of a group of letters taken from the word or phrase. In order to save space, writers apply abbreviation in the process of news writing and it has become a trend in news writing resulting in more and more abbreviated neologisms. Abbreviated neologism in news writing can be categorized into three types: acronym, clipping, and blending. Acronym. Acronym is kind of abbreviation used as a word which is formed from the initial components in a phrase or a word. Acronyms are more space saving, eye-catching, and interesting than the completed group of words. It is often used to abbreviate long and frequently referenced names of organizations such as AIIB (Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank) and WTO (World Tourism Organization). The public employ it in their daily social and cultural life. DINS (double income no sex), Kippers (kids in parents’ pockets eroding retirement savings), and DWY (driving while yakking) are all the examples of acronyms, to name just a few. Business and industry also are prolific coiners of acronyms. Examples include B2B (business to business), CFO (chief financial officer), BAM (bric and mortar), and BRICs (Brazil, Russia, India, and China). The rapid development of science and technology is another driving force in its usage, since new inventions and concepts demand shorter neologisms. Examples are, TMT (technology, media, telecommunications), UMPC (ultra mobile personal computer), and VBIED (vehicle-borne improvised explosive device), etc. Clipping. Clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts. The most common type is apocope in which the beginning of the prototype is retained. Examples are: Decaf (decaffeinated), vert (vertical), techie (technician), and sig (signature). Final clipping or apheresis retains the final part of the prototype. Examples include: coon (raccoon), varsity (university), and net (Internet). Syncope is the word with the middle part of it left out: maths (mathematics) and specs (spectacles). Blends. Blends combine lexemes to form a new word. For example, Chindia is a blend of China and India, Obamacon a blend of Obama and conservative, celeblog a blend of celebrity and blog, groceraunt a blend of grocer and restaurant, vegelate a blend of vegetable and chocolate, and e-lancer economy a blend of electronic, freelancer, and economy. Loan Words Loan word is a word borrowed from a source language and incorporated into a recipient language without translation. English is a mixture of various languages including French, Chinese, German, Italian, Greek, Russian, Japanese and Arabian, etc., since immigrants come from all over the world. According to surveys, the percentage of modern English words derived from each language is 29% from French, 29% from Latin, 26% from German, 6% from Greek, the rest accounting for 6%. News English often reports world news and loan word use cannot only attract the readers’ attention but provide them with direct foreign information. Words of Chinese origin have entered the English language, most of which were loanwords from Chinese itself and some of which have also entered indirectly via other languages such as Japanese and Korean. For example, taikonaut, wirefu, tuhao, dama, wechat, and fengshui, etc. Loan words from Japanese are 294 NEOLOGISM IN NEWS ENGLISH tsunami, manga, ciabatta, and aitech. Italian loan words include trattoria, bimbo, paparazzi, and snaparazzi. French new loan words include déjà vu, jamai vu, déjà dit, franc fort, touché, parkour, etc. Loan words from Indian are bangle, guru, and lulu; From German are Ossi doktorvater, Professoriat, gemutlich, kaffeeklatsch, kaput, kitsch,waldsterben; From Russian are pamyat, lasik and intelligentsia, glasnost, Lunokhod, Lunik, Politburo, sputnik, icon muzhik; From Spanish are plaza, silo, bonanza, salsa, fiesta, etc. The loan words from those languages make English colorful, expressive, and productive. Compounding A compound is a word composed of more than one free morpheme. It is the process of word formation that creates compound lexemes. This type of formation has the largest number and is increasing. The component stems of a compound may be categorized into several major types: noun, verb, and adjective. Examples are cable ready, acid jazz, bubble tea, latte factor, universal release, economic downturn, pink slip party, office spouse, quiet date, power nap, trophy wife, hockey mom, Alpha mom, unwedding ceremony, speed date, shutter man, sit-in; cut and shut, writeprint, green wash, freeze dry, take out, highlight, offset, cross-question, dog sit; blue green, fat free; make under, over ripe, value-added, epoch-making, export-oriented, overseas-funded, clean limbed, car schooling, fast-fingered, and newly-published. Derivation Derivation is the forming of a new word based on an existing word. It often involves the addition of a morpheme in the form of an affix, such as suffix -ness, -tion, and prefix un-, dis-, etc. With the peaceful rising of China, It is playing a greater role in international politics, culture, and economy. Neologisms beginning with prefix Chi- appear and have become a hot word: Chinology, Chimerica, Chindia, Chimerny, and Chinglish. Neologisms with suffix—vore appear recently in large numbers: oppotunivore, vegivore, locavore, faunavore, photovore, planktivore, and piscivore. More examples are canyoning, unturkey, bootable, Floridization, worklessness, incubator, demall, supersize, trashy, dejunk, regift, and deshopping. Derivation can also occur without any change of form but part of speech, for example, friend (noun) and to friend. This is called conversion, or zero derivation. More examples are lance (noun) and to lance, dump (verb) and a dump, commute (verb) and a commute to London, green (adjective) and to green, priviledged (adjective) and the priviledged (noun), underpriviledged (adjective) and the underpriviledged. Analogy Analogy is a cognitive process of transferring information or meaning from a particular source to another target, or a linguistic expression corresponding to such a process. Neologisms can be formed by analogy with existing words. Example are: beerholic, colaholic, movie-holic, teleholic, carboholic, loveholic, milkhaulic, and surgiholic are formed by analogy with workaholic. Other analogous neologisms are color analogy including grey collar, pink-collar, new collar, gold collar, bright collar, green collar, and black collar from white collar; number analogy 3I’s (inflation, interest rate, and impeachment) from 3R’s (reading, writing, and arithmetic); antonym analogy brain gain is shaped from brain drain, down market from upmarket, sit tragedy from sitcom; place analogy such as cityscape, moonscape, netscape, riverscape, roofscape, waterscape, seascape, streetscape from landscape, etc. As a result, neologism formed by analogy abound in large number. NEOLOGISM IN NEWS ENGLISH 295 Meaning Transfer With development of science and technology and progress of society, new concepts come into being requiring neologisms to put them into vivid and clear expression. However, new concepts do not necessarily need creation of new words. Instead they can be conveyed by meaning transfer. “Bail out” came from French baille, meaning bucket and jumping out of the plane. However, with the passage of time, people now use it to mean giving financial support to those in trouble and get them out of it. For example, Salt Lake Tribune reported that President Obama said the government will recover all the taxpayer money his administration provided to bail out the auto industry last year. In an interview aired Thursday on the ABC daytime talk show “the View”, Obama said the auto industry “tells a good story” of his administration efforts to rescue the economy. More examples would be: hoodie transfering meaning from clothes to cynical young people, size zero from zero to skinny model, lame from crippled to bad, and beat from verb hit to adjective ugly. Chapter III Various Styles of Writing and Speaking in English Everyone uses various styles or registers. Which one you choose depends on a particular situation you are in. A change of register or style is connected with a particular change in usage of words. For instance, contractions are used more frequently in an informal style. Also, when you speak to your boss you usually choose other words than those you choose when you speak with your friends. "Informal talk is not anarchy, but the rules are more liberal with regard to deletion, contraction, word choice, and so on, than the grammar rules of the formal language." (Fromkin 473) 2.4.1 Slang Slang occurs in an informal style frequently. "The use of slang, or colloquial language, introduces many new words into the language by recombining old words into new meanings." (Fromkin 473) Examples are spaced out, hang-up and so on. Words like these ones are often invented to keep on with new facts, ideas and customs or to "represent 'in' attitudes better than the more conservative items of the vocabulary." (Fromkin 474) "Slang also introduces entirely new words such as barf, flub and pooped." (Fromkin 473) "Finally, slang often consists of ascribing entirely new meanings to old words" (Fromkin 473) And as Fromkin finally says, "it is not always easy to know where to draw the line between slang words and regular words." (Fromkin 474) 2.5 Corpus Linguistics A corpus is a large collection of various texts. It is a base for linguistic analysis. Corpus or corpora can be used for empirical investigations in many areas of linguistics. Corpus-based analysis has some characteristics, as it is stated in Corpus Lingustics (Biber 4). The most important is the fact that "it is empirical, analyzing the actual patterns of use in natural texts" (Biber 4) In this way we can investigate "how a lexical item ... is distributed differentially across 1. varieties defined by situation (registers), 2. varieties defined by social group (dialects), or 3. periods of time." In my thesis I pay attention to the first and to the third aspect. It was necessary to use a corpus for my research. I needed one which would be freely available and balanced. I wanted not only to determine frequencies of various neologisms in the COCA corpus. I also wanted to find out whether they occur in other forms (verbs in passive or gerund, nouns in plural and so on). Then usage of corpus was again very useful, because it allowed me to benefit from another feature of corpus linguistics, for me a very important one. It is a possibility to type the query as lemma. The term lemma means "the base form of a word, disregarding grammatical changes such as tense or plurality." (Biber 29) This function enabled me to study more forms of one word collectively and investigate their frequency as a group. Biber says in Corpus Linguistics that "to study the meaning and use of words, we need a very large corpus" (Biber 30) and that "a 1-million-word corpus will not provide sufficient data for many words to allow for meaningful generalizations" (Biber 30) The truthiness of this fact appears even more important when we study words which are not frequent even in general. Which is my case – without using adequately wide and updated corpus it would not be possible to find many neologisms at all. Furthermore, "with a very large corpora containing many different texts ... a wider range of topics should be represented, so that the frequencies of are less influenced by individual texts." (Biber 30) Finally, I decided to use the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). It is updated approximately every six months, so by the time of doing my research I could make use of corpus which includes data even from the year 2008. The COCA is composed from various registers. The negative aspect of usage of this corpus is that it is focused on American English. I decided not to use the TIME Magazine Corpus, which consists only from journalistic texts and therefore is not balanced. The second reason why not is that it includes only 100 million words. I do not use the British National Corpus (BNC), because it is not updated. The newest data are as old as from 1993. However, corpus linguistics need not be based only on corpora. We can use the whole internet as a giant corpus. "The enormous amount of data on the web can be a valuable resource for research concerning lexical innovations, morphological productivity, or other topics ..." (Hundt 2007: 246) "The web has also given rise to new text types-like email and weblogs-which are not represented in traditional corpora. Moreover, the web is subject to continuous change, while traditional corpora are static and quickly out of date. Web language ... may have an influence on language change. These phenomena can be investigated by using the web for corpus linguistics." (Hundt 246) The disadvantages of using Google for linguistics research are these: the search engine does not differ for example between various types of compounds like mouthbreather, mouth-breather and mouth breather, which is possible in corpus. "Absolute and especially relative frequencies are dramatically different since the SE does not discriminate properly between forms with and without 's ..." (Hundt 248) However, finally it is considered that the SE (search engine) is "linguistically less accurate and reported frequencies are not reliable, but nevertheless documents authentic, unedited language." (Hundt 248) Sometimes also the frequency is not relevant – this holds true especially for the neologisms which were created by a change of meaning (for example an adjective Stepford from Stepford Wives) – because in the result there are included also the previous meanings of the word. Disbalance can occur also when a recently created word becomes for example a title of a song, so it gains popularity and therefore the result is, at least in Google, influenced by this fact and the number of frequency is increased a lot in comparison to normal usage. Finally, I decided to include research of frequency of various neologisms in Google. It shows the way English is actually spoken or written nowadays – and this argument is stronger than the negative aspect of Google I described. 3. The Practical Part What follows is processing of the whole list of neologisms. Each entry looks like this sample: neologism (word class, specification) - other forms of neologism (word class, specification) - type of word formation - meaning - frequency in COCA with illustrative sentences or/and - frequency in Google with illustrative sentences abibliophobia (noun, U) - also: abibliophobe (noun, C), abibliophobic (adjective) - derivation by prefix a- from bibliophobia - "fear of runing out of things to read" (Maxwell 2006: 7) - frequency in Google: abibliophobia (880) "In response to the request for a name for the fear of a lack of reading matter, a friend in Paris suggests: "abibliophobia"." abibliophobe (145) "It's true, and I admit it: I am an abibliophobe." abibliophobic (113) "My friend Mark calls us abibliophobic, afraid to be caught without a book." afterparty/after-party/after party (noun, C) - compounding - a party after the main party ended - frequency in COCA: 74 afterparty (15) "I went to an afterparty for his group, and we just totally hit it off." (Cosmopolitan, 2005 (Oct), Vol. 239, Iss. 4; pg. 212, 4 pgs) after-party (35) "What about the after-party, we hear these things are a pretty hot, happening deal." (NBC_Today, 2004, Molly Sims and Carson Daly discuss the 2004 Annual Radio Music Awards held in Las Vegas) after party (24) "The after party should be enjoyable." (Houston Chronicle, 2007, Hall ceremonies offer poignant moments) - frequency in Google: 9 030 000 al desko (adverb, adjective) - coinage (inspired by alfresco) - eating "whilst sitting at your desk" (Maxwell 9) - frequency in Google: 3 070 "One in five Australians regularly dines al desko, eating lunch while at their desk." alcolock (noun, C) - blending, from alcohol interlock - an electronic device installed in a car to test whether the driver is safe to drive - frequency in Google: 4 230 "However, Volvo is a strong advocate of the introduction of the alcolock in every commercial vehicle." ambush marketing (noun, U) - compound - it is a "strategy used by companies to promote their brands at events without paying any sponsorship fees" - frequency in COCA: 5 "Program changes, made to appease Olympic sponsors worried about ambush marketing, caused the huge drop." (Atlanta Journal Constitution, 1996) - frequency in Google: 43 900 ASBO (noun, U) - acronyming from anti-social behaviour order - "a civil order intended to deal with those individuals who persistently make life unpleasant for others" (Maxwell 12) - frequency in COCA: 23, however, all of them were an abbreviation or acronym of some organization - frequency in Google: 598 000 "ASBOs aim to protect the public from further anti-social behaviour from an individual rather than punish the person." awareness bracelet/band (noun, C) - compound - a silicone rubber wristband showing that its owner donated some money to some organization which helps to the ill - frequency in Google: awareness bracelet (101 000) "We have brought together a silicone awareness bracelet with a flash memory drive." awareness band (8 120) "Now, you can have your own awareness band for your favorite cause." < www.rubber-bracelets.com> babyccino/babycino (noun, C) - blending from capuccino and baby - a hot drink for babies similar to cappuccino, but coffee-free - frequency in Google: babyccino (18 800) "My daughter has known the meaning of a good babyccino since she was able to hold a spoon." babycino (15 700) "I later learned that the child in question was not drinking coffee but was, in fact, sipping a babycino." baby hunger (noun, U) - compounding - "strong desire to have a baby" - frequency in Google: 6 310 "Baby Hunger urges women to act logically and take control of their lives." babymoon (noun, C) - blending from baby and honeymoon - the last holiday for a couple before their first child arrives - frequency in COCA: 4 "U. S. Virgin Islands offers singular settings to tie the knot, honeymoon or "babymoon"." (Ebony, May 2008, Honeymoon Hideaways, Vol. 63, Iss. 7; pg. 120, 3 pgs) - frequency in Google: 89 700 baguette (noun, C) - change of meaning - "a slim wide handbag with a short strap" (Maxwell 17) - frequency in COCA: 498; baguette (357), baguettes (141) "Fendi's success a few years back with the baguette bag, which was seen on everything from the HBO hit "Sex and the City" to the arms of a slew of Hollywood starlets, ..." (Denver Post, 2005, THE PURSE A WOMAN CARRIES IS MORE THAN AN ACCESSORY) - frequency in Google: 3 230 000 - note: also other meanings of baguette(s) are included in the numbers of frequency in corpus. Compound baguette bag was found twice. barbecue-stopper (noun, C) - compounding - a controversial topic for conversation - frequency in Google: 2 090 "The national debate over paid maternity leave was described as a ‘barbecue stopper’…" barista (noun, C) - also: baristas (noun, C) - borrowing from Italian - a person behind a bar mixing various kinds of coffee - frequency in COCA: 68 barista (51) "Customers loved to hang out with the funny and gregarious barista." (Washington Post, 2004, The Episode Of a Lifetime) baristas (17) "National Honor Society students are the baristas, making 300 cups of Starbucks each day, to be doled out for free before and after school." (The Journal, August 2007, Vol. 34 Issue 8, p22-26, 5p) - frequency in Google: barista (2 290 000), baristas (459 000) big up (phrasal verb, T) - compounding - to exaggerate - frequency in COCA: 20, but no result had this meaning - frequency in Google: 1 870 000 "It's not the first time that IBM has 'bigged-up' the idea of self-healing computing, indeed its whole Autonomic Computing initiative speaks to that goal." bird flu (noun, U) - compounding - "highly contagious infection caused by avian flu viruses" - frequency in COCA: 434 - "The arrival of the deadly H5N1 bird flu is going to change things." (Futurist, Sept/Oct 2006, Vol. 40, Iss. 5; pg. 52, 7 pgs) - frequency in Google: 5 240 000 BlackBerry thumb/Blackberry thumb (noun, U) - compounding - a strain injury caused by the frequent use of your thumb to press buttons on your mobile or other devices - frequency in COCA: 5 - "Let's talk about BlackBerry thumb and how we kind of get around that." (CBS_SatEarly; 2007; HealthWatch) - frequency in Google: 24 000 blamestorming (noun, U) - compounding - sitting around in a group and discussing who is responsible for some failure - frequency in Google: 29 200 - "New “blamestorming” has started in Georgia, which appears natural given that the country still has more or less active opposition." bling (adjective) - also: bling-bling (noun, U), blingy (adjective), bling up (verb) - coinage - sparkling, flashy, often expensive jewelry - frequency in COCA: 213 bling (170) "Dixon takes on materialism and the bling culture to which, he says, many younger black Americans fall victim." (Houston Chronicle, 2007) bling-bling (39) "Give your legs, arms, and back a little bling-bling." (Cosmopolitan, Jun 2007, Vol. 242, Iss. 6; pg. 234) bling up (2) "Limit yourself to two colors, plus black, and bling up your wardrobe with costume jewels; they take up little room." (Bazaar, Oct 2004, Iss. 3515; pg. 137, 3 pg ) blingy (2) "Her latest effort is Smythson's Nancy Bag collection, luscious quilted styles with a retro leather slide clasp that are light on blingy hardware and heavy on effortless chic." (Harpers Bazaar, Sep 2007, Iss. 3550; pg. 397) - frequency in Google: bling (18 800 000), bling-bling (3 880 000), bling up (94 900), blingy (180 000) blog (noun, C; verb) - also: blogs (verb, noun), blogging (verb, noun), blogged (verb), blogger (noun, C) - clipping from weblog - a type of website where you write your regular posts - frequency in COCA: 3222 blog (1659) "Ross, who pasted the posts into her blog, refused." (ABA Journal, Jan 2008, Vol. 94 Issue 1, p34-39, 6p) "I was a newspaper journalist in the Islamic Republic, but censorship forced me to blog." (Middle East Quarterly, Fall2008, Vol. 15 Issue 4, p49-52) blogs (930) "By night, she blogs for an hour or two on Tina Popo (tinapopo.typepad.com)." (San Francisco Chronicle, 2006) blogged (39) "Others have ventured out on the Passaic and blogged about it." (New York Times, 2008, Section NJ; Column 0; New Jersey Weekly Desk; Pg. 1) blogger (310) "She's even the voice of the mischievous faceless blogger on the CW's Gossip Girl." (Cosmopolitan, May 2008, Vol. 244, Iss. 5; pg. 46) blogging (284) "Everything changed, though, when blogging software became available." (Redbook, Aug 2008, Vol. 211, Iss. 2; pg. 74) - frequency in Google: blog (2 690 000 000), blogs (707 000 000), blogged (20 300 000), blogger (168 000 000), blogging (77 000 000) blook (noun, C) - blending from blog and book - a printed blog - frequency in COCA: 1, but it is typing error (blook pressure) - frequency in Google: 150 000 "This blook is about South Africa - a constructive look at our present, our future and the opportunities that we have." bluejacking (noun, U) - coinage - using your mobile phone with Bluetooth "to discretely send anonymous text messages to the people around you" (Maxwell 27) - frequency in COCA: 1 "What are the differences between bluejacking and bluesnarfing? " (CNN LiveToday, 2005) - frequency in Google: 62 500 body lift (noun, C) - compounding - a procedure giving the buttocks, abdomen and thighs an improved appearance - frequency in COCA: 10 "After bankruptcy and buyouts a few years ago, Abercrombie decided on a major face and body lift." (CBS_Sixty, 2003) - frequency in Google: 733 000 BOGOF/bogof (noun, C/U; adjective) - acronym from buy one get one free - sales promotion, a strategy of shops how to sell more goods - frequency in Google: 410 000 - "No, I agree with the person who wrote the comment about BOGOF on vegetables being useless for one-person households." bookcrosser (noun, C) - also: bookcrossing (noun, verb) - mixed: compound from book and cross, derivation by suffix - er - someone who leaves his own book somewhere for someone else - frequency in COCA: bookcrossing (2) "She chose the BookcrossingMeetup, at which people are encouraged to' release their favorite books into the wild." (Denver Post, 2004) - frequency in Google: bookcrossing (2 680 000) bookcrosser (71 000) "I was a completely crap bookcrosser last year." bouncebackability (noun, U) - compounding - an ability to bounce back - frequency in Google: bouncebackability (29 200) "What we need is to develop our bouncebackability!" < www.blisstree.com> bouncebackibility (16) "It just shows that our boys really know the meaning of bouncebackibility." breadcrumbs (noun, plural) - change of meaning - "a string of words which represent the path of pages a person has visited" (Maxwell 32) on the Web - frequency in COCA: 312 "A log of location-based electronic breadcrumbs recorded by your GPS." (Backpacker, Jun 2008, Vol. 36, Iss. 5; pg. 66, 2 pgs) - freqeuncy in Google: 3 820 000 - note: also another meanings of breadcrumbs are included in results numbers bromance (noun, C) - blending from brother and romance - "a good friendship" (Maxwell 33) - frequency in COCA: 3 "In Pineapple Express, like some of your past films, your character has a "bromance" with another male (James Franco)." (People, Aug 18, 2008, Vol. 70, Iss. 7; pg. 21) - frequency in Google: 903 000 budgie smugglers (noun, plural) - compound - "tight-fitting swimming briefs" (Maxwell 34) - frequency in Google: 23 000 "I probably need swimming lessons, but at least I am comfortable in budgie smugglers." bustitution (noun, U) - blending from bus and substitution - substitution of a bus for a train - frequency in COCA: 1 "...some people believed that bus substitution (which they called "bustitution") could never be defensible." (American Heritage, May/Jun 1998, Vol. 49 Issue 3, p95) - frequency in Google: 5 370 cage diving (noun, U) - compounding - diving in a cage, usually among sharks - frequency in COCA: 5 "For those blase about bungee jumping, cage diving is the new adrenalin rush." (ABC WorldNews, 1996) - frequency in Google: 151 000 chad (noun, C/U) - also: chads, chadless - coinage - perforated material on a paper or a card permitting mechanical reading of the pattern of perforation; used in elections - frequency in COCA: 3082 chad (2845, however these results had another meaning) chads (237) "Voter purges, hanging chads and butterfly ballots in Florida cast doubt on the 2000 presidential race." (Ms; Arlington, Winter 2008, Vol. 18, Iss. 1; pg. 48, 4 pgs) chadless (1) "This election year, a lot of people will go chadless." (CNN_Next, 2004) - frequency in Google: chads (485 000), chadless (11 900) chad (90 000 000) "Only one of the machines has 2N or 3N of chad beneath a voting position." - note: the result numbers for chad are not relevant for this meaning, because it also has other meanings chav (noun, C) - change of meaning (earlier it was a pejorative word) - a person wearing thick gold chains, short skirts, designer sportswear and baseball cap - frequency in Google: 2 720 000 "You are not a chav if you do not drink buckfast tonic wine." Chelsea tractor (noun, C) - mixed: eponym and compound - "a large, four-wheel drive vehicle … driven in towns and cities for ordinary domestic purposes" - frequency in Google: 12 000 "I need a Chelsea tractor to take my kids to school." chocotherapy (noun, U) - blending from chocolate and therapy - a spa treatment using chocolate - frequency in Google: 2 660 "A ChocoTherapy massage begins with a fine coffee bean exfoliation to smooth your skin and to stimulate blood flow to the skin’s surface." Conclusion The preceding pages have shown that neologisms are a means of the updating of the lexicon. Moreover, they demonstrate language dynamics and its creativity. Neologisms occur within all areas of human activity, so that their description represents an inseparable part of linguistic research and thus is utilizable in practice. In the diploma thesis, I have tried to provide a definition of a neologism. It is further focused especially on means of forming new words on the basis of the data of my own corpus. As the title of the thesis implies, newspapers, namely the Guardian and the Daily Mail, served as a source of the corpus. From this, it follows that I have searched neologisms within written texts, particularly for its better accessibility and transparency. The amount of excerpted neologisms has reached a total of 530. 502 of them have been created by word-formation processes. The last 28 have served rather as an illustration of productivity of other means of restoring the vocabulary. However, they have not been count among the final results. A comparative analysis of a serious newspaper (the Guardian) and a tabloid (the Daily Mail) has suggested a few interesting tendencies. It needs to be noticed that there is a trend towards colloquialization of journalistic style, i.e. the serious newspapers tend to draw inspiration from the tabloids. Regarding the frequency of occurrence of lexical word-formation processes, the two dailies reach similar results. It would be to presume that quality newspapers would contain more neologisms as they simply devote much more space to text, however, it has proved untenable. It seems that quantity of text is rather marginal because neologisms arise where it is desirable to shock and force the reader to read the article. New, usually ambiguous and not easily understandable words achieve these aims, particularly in newspaper headlines. As for individual word-formation processes, I have divided them into two groups according to the historical point of view. Thus, there are six of them belonging to the category of minor, i.e. blending, abbreviations, acronyms, clipping, manufacture and reduplicatives. The four major ones are then compounding, derivation, conversion and backformation. The results presented in the practical part have pointed out that compounds are by far the most productive process. 220 neologisms have been created in this way, which 66 equals 43.8 %. The most productive subcategory of compounds has been the one in which their both parts have been nouns. Conversely, adjectival and verbal compounds have not occurred so often. Interestingly, the second most fruitful process has been blending, which in literature is frequently referred to as unusual. However, the newest studies claim that blending is very productive and consider it to be a kind of fashion trend. Apparently, blending seems to be in a position of an extremely productive word-formation process. In our research, 103 words and correspondingly 20.5 % of them have been created by blending. Similarly to compounds, as for blending, which is in fact a combination of two parts of two words, is also possible to trace which word parts combine in most cases. 74 % of blending neologisms have consisted of the initial part of the first and the final part of the second word. Turning to derivation which has, without a shadow of doubt, enhanced the English vocabulary in a large number of words, it seems to be somewhat on the decrease nowadays. Despite the fact that it is still the third most productive process, it does not play such an important role as it used to. Still considering productivity, we can see very likely results in cases of abbreviations, conversion, acronyms and clipping. The frequency of their occurrence has reached from 3.6 to 4.8 %. Nonetheless, I admit that there are some problems closely related to conversion and it is quite challenging for a non-native speaker to find it. Next, it appears that manufacture and backformation tend to be of a low or even marginal productivity, at least as for their frequency within newspapers. In addition, word manufacture is rather a matter of creativity. I have successfully found only six and 2 examples respectively. The next point of view according to which I have classified neologisms, is their membership in various spheres of human activities. Nonetheless, the spheres are not equivalent to the parts of newspapers mainly for the reason that the sections of the two dailies do not correspond with each other. Also, there was a difference within the content of individual newspapers during the six days they are issued. This led me to treating of neologisms not according to which part of newspapers they occurred but according to their origin in spheres of human interests. I have therefore distinguished between the following ten groups. 67 The most productive sphere has been people and society primarily for the reason that it has included the most diverse areas. Its frequency has been higher than one fifth, precisely 21.5 %. IT and politics have displayed similar significance, i.e. 19.5 % and 17.1 % respectively. Such tendencies are very interesting as they proved that language is able to reflect all new concepts, inventions, changes and reacts to the new situations very flexibly. Regarding the other areas, i.e. health, sport, business and finance, art and music, environment, science, and travelling, they have indicated comparable results. Nevertheless, in comparison with the three previous spheres, they remain marginal. In other words, they vary from 3.6 to 9.0 %. In summary, I have to remark that the issue of neologisms is highly topical and interesting. Its detailed study cannot only entail the listing of the means of forming neologisms, description of their usage and illustration of their frequency within two British newspapers. This theme deserves a much more concise compilation. This diploma thesis is only a small contribution to the comprehensive research of neologisms. REFERENCES Adams, V. 1973. An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation. London: Longman. Ayto, J. 2007. A Century of New Words. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Ayto, J. 2006. Movers and Shakers. A Chronology of Words that Shaped Our Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bauer, L. 2002. English Word-Formation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bauer, L. 1994. Watching English Change. London: Longman. Bolinger, D. 1980. Language – the Loaded Weapon. The Use and Abuse of Language Today. London: Longman. Conboy, M. 2010. The Language of Newspapers: Socio-Historical Perspectives. London: Continuum. Cotter, C. 2010. News Talk: Investigating the Language of Journalism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Crystal, D. 2004. The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Download 35.04 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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