Course work theme: Checked by: Student: Karshi-2022 types of word combinations contents: Introduction Chapter Word-combination (WC) and their basic types

1.2. Word sketch - collocations and word combinations.
The number of cases in Modern English: there are dif. views on this problem. Historically there was one common case system for both nouns & personal pronouns in old English. Some scholars try to introduce a 3 case system. According to them nouns & personal pronouns have nominative case⁵. Other scholars (J.Curme): find 4 cases –nominative, genitive, dative, accusative. Prof. Voroncova thinks that the category of case doesn’t exist in English because it’s not a case inflection.
The category of voice (which is found both with finite and non-finite forms) is one of the most formal grammatical categories, because this category doesn’t refer to any fragment of reality, doesn’t reflect any fragment of reality – it’s a way of describing a certain fragment of reality. The category of voice deals with the participants of a happening (doer, action, object) and how they are represented in the sentence (subject, predicate, object). The Active Voice shows that the grammatical subject of the sentence or the subjectival is the doer of the action, denoted by the verb, the Passive Voice shows that the subject or the subjectival is an object of the action. The frequency of occurrence of the English Passive Voice is very great, greater than in Russian. One of the reasons is that the number of verbs capable of forming the Passive Voice is greater in English than in Russian. In many languages: PV – transitive verbs, in English: PV – any object verb. In some cases the lex. character of the verb the subj. of the active construction can’t be regarded as the doer of the action. These cases are: ex. He lost his father in the war.; he broke his leg. Disagreement btw the gram. form of the verb and the lex. mean-g of the verb. Due to the lex. mean-g of the V the semantics of the construction becomes passive. In fact the subj. is not the doer, but the sufferer. Some grammarians treat these constructions as active due to the gram. form.
Opposition: active – passive. Passive – marked -> pattern “be + II participle”, active –unmarked
Forms of Fut. Cont, Present Perf. Cont, Past Perf. Cont, Future Perf. Cont – no parallel forms in passive.
Any other voices??? -> doubts and controversy
- the reflexive voice (eq.He dressed himself) – the agent and the object of the action simultaneously ;
- the reciprocal voice (They greeted each other) – not 1 person; action aimed at the other member of the same group;
- the middle voice (The door opened) – the form of the v is act, but the meaning is passive.
The active voice has a number of mean-gs: active, passive, middle, reflective, reciprocal.
Pr. Ilyish “ Eng. Has several voices. The classif-n is based on mean-g only.
Pr. Barhudarov calls the active voice non-passive.
The idea of the Passive voice is expressed not only by means of “to be + P2”, but by means of “get”, “come”, “go” + P2 and “get” + passive infinitive (ingressive meaning - He got involved; He got to be respected)⁶.
The existence of various means of expressing voice distinctions makes it possible to consider voice as a functional-semantic category with the grammatical category of voice as its center and other means of expressing voice as a periphery.
Presents a specific linguistic reflection of quantitative relations between homogeneous objects of reality conceptualized by the human mind. It is constituted by the binary opposition of singular and plural forms. The formal marker of the opposition is represented by several phonetically and historically conditioned allomorphs, such as [-z] (boys), [-s] (cats), [-iz] (classes), [0] (, sheep), [-en] (oxen), [ ae ] (antennae), [ ai] (radii) etc. There are quite a few doublets among the plural forms which differ either lexically (a penny - pennies (coins), pence ( a sum of money)
Semantically the forms of the plural are not homogeneous either. The paradigmatic meaning of plurality is represented by a number of syntagmatic variants, such as: discrete plurality (books, houses), indiscrete plurality (hours, miles), partitive plurality (spectacles), variety plurality (wines, cheeses, fruits,), space plurality (snows, sands, waters), family, or clan plurality {the Browns, the Smiths)⁷.
From the point of view of their number characteristics the English nouns fall into two classes: countable and uncountable. This feature of the noun determines its choice of the article, the quantitative pronoun and the form of the predicate (singular or plural). Uncountable nouns are further subdivided into two groups: Singularia Tantum and Pluralia Tantum. The group of Singularia Tantum includes:.1. names of abstract notions (love, friendship etc.); 2. names of mass materials ( bread, butter, sugar etc.); 3. names of some collective inanimate objects (foliage, machinery etc.); 4. names of sciences and professional activities ( medicine, architecture etc.); 5. nouns of heterogeneous semantics. This is a limited group and includes such nouns as: hair, advice; knowledge, money, information, news. The first four groups of nouns of Singularia Tantum denote concepts which are incompatible (несовместим.) with the idea of countability.
Singularia Tantum nouns, when used in the plural form, always acquire additional meanings. Tax moneys means considerable sums o.f money coming from various taxes (this explanation was suggested by an English speaker who used this noun in the plural).
The group of Pluralia Tantum nouns includes: 1. nouns denoting objects consisting of two parts ( trousers, spectacles etc.); 2. nouns denoting results of repeated processes (savings, labours, belongings etc.); 3. nouns of multitude (police, gentry, poultry, cattle);4. nouns of various semantics ( oats, outskirts, clothes etc.).
The category of mood in the present English verb has given rise to so many discussions and has been treated in so many ways, that it seems hardly possible to arrive at any more or less acceptable conclusion. The only points in the sphere of mood which haven’t been disputed are the following: 1) there is a category of mood in Modern English ( Mood- is the grammatical category of the verb, which expresses the relation of the action denoted by the verb to reality from the speaker’s point of view); 2) there are at least 2 moods in the modern English verb, one of which is the indicative. (The indicative mood is the basic mood of the verb. Morphologically it’s the most developed system including all the categories of the verb. Semantically it’s a fact mood. It serves to present an action as a fact of reality. It’s the most objective of all the moods. It conveys minimum personal attitude to the fact: Ex. Water consists of oxygen.)
2 groups of Moods (generally):
- the real or fact Moods
- the unreal, non-fact, oblique Moods.
The Indicative Mood is the only real mood in the English language. It represents an action as a real fact. The forms of the Ind. Mood are the tense-aspect forms of the verb⁸.
There are 2 non-fact Moods in English: the Imperative Mood (represents an action as a command, urging, request. It’s a direct expression of one’s will. It’s much more ‘subjective’ than the ind. Mood. It’s modal mean-g is very strong &distinct: ex. Someone make an offer and quick!) and the Subjunctive Mood (it represents an action as a non-fact, as smth imaginary, desirable, problematic, contrary to reality: ex. I wish he were here now.)The hypothetic desirable in the form of advice, request, recommendation, order and so on. There is another point of view on the imperative Mood: (we don’t mark the action as real or unreal!) – Stelling (Штелинг) considers the Imperative form Mood the grammatical idiom.
The Subjunctive Mood represents an action as unreal: 2 degrees of reality: not quite real (Present, Future), quite unreal (for the Past).
Some linguists think that the past indefinite and the Past Perfect used to denote an unreal action are not mood forms at all, but tense forms.
The classification system of moods presented by A.I.Smirnitsky. It appears to be the most consistent because it is meaning-oriented and it also takes into consideration the difference between an analytical form and a free syntactic combination. His system of moods includes six moods: the Indicative, the Imperative, Subjunctive I, Subjunctive II, the Conditional Mood and the Suppositional mood⁹.
Types of word combinations
The structural and semantic features of the word combination largely depend on which part of the speech the dominant member is expressed. Therefore, in the syntax is considered the classification of word combinations, based on the morphological nature of the dominant member. There are six types of word combinations: verbal, substantive, adjective, adverbial, pronoun, word combinations with numerals.
For each type of characteristic features of the expression of the subject, the range of syntactic relations and their formal manifestation.
Verb phrases
In verbal phrases, the dominant term can be expressed as conjugated and non-conjugated forms of the verb (flies directly , flying straight , flying straight , The subordinate term is represented by the forms of the indirect cases of nouns, pronouns-substantives and substantivized words, adverbs, gerunds, infinitives (read the book , looked at me , < looking at passers-by , sitting right , talking carving , lay down).
In such phrases, there are two types of syntactic connection - control (strong and weak) and contiguity. They express the objective and various types of relational (circumstantial) relations. Attributive relations are not inherent in verbal word combinations, because their dominant term calls not actions, but actions.
Object relations are expressed by the forms of declined words and (rarely) by the infinitive: build a share, consider the captivity, invited me; talked with newcomers; Waving his arms; hit the tree; touched his hand; they gave us supper; I opened my eyes and I saw Kalinich; he sat on the threshold of a half-opened door and cut a spoon with a knife (T.); Gregory at first was referring to the new Chief of Staff , not without bias (Sh.) The pushed about the shore (M.G.).
Varied relations are expressed by the forms of indirect cases of nouns without prepositions and with prepositions, and also adverbs: went (all) day; I write in the evenings; returned to evening; talked about an hour; went out in the morning; waited until evening; warned in advance; learned late; I remembered in the winter; Dasha left from home not every day and only in the morning (AT); At sunset I went out to the country road (Paust.); There was a forge in Zagorje, and I with her from birth grew (TV): Waking early , in the window I saw Tatyana in the morning the whiteed yard (П.)¹⁰.
Spatial relations - the subordinate term of the phrase denotes the place of action or direction of movement and can be expressed by forms of indirect cases of nouns without prepositions or with prepositions, and also adverbs: sleeps in bed; rode the meadow; he left the house; crossing the street; rushed to the forest; floats under the bridge; looked to the right; lives here; stayed at home; rushed forward; Some kind of bird (Paust.) cracked on the larch near the fire ; After crying, Yegorushka left the crib and, bypassing the puddle, spilled into the street (Ch.); The motion started (AT); We ourselves volunteered here (TV); He turned off the highway onto the field and made his way at random bushes (L.T.).
As other circumstances, other relations - the subordinate term of the phrase contains a qualitative characteristic of the action and is expressed by case forms of nouns without prepositions (creative comparisons) and with prepositions, and verbal participles and qualitative adverbs: flashed by lightning; crumble with noise; we lay without movement; laughs cheerfully; spoke with inspiration; they trotted; was stumbling; The ceiling on us went down the crow (M.); The crimson clouds in the west slowly faded. I was plaintively crying bittern (Paust.); And Daria willingly volunteered to go (Sh.).
Quantitatively-circumstantial relations - a subordinate term of a word combination indicates the amount of action, its measure, the degree of its manifestation and is expressed¹¹ by the forms of nouns and adverbs: fell through the waist; spread out from edge to edge; was very surprised; strongly compressed; In some places, the road was kneaded to the knee by golden wheat (III.); Thus night, day, then another night , r /, making sure , helps my thinking, I saw (Ч.).
Causal relations - the subordinate term of the phrase indicates the cause of the action and is expressed by nouns with the prepositions from, from, from, to, thanks, with, and adverbs: absent from illness' , help out of pity, "quarreled over trifles," cried with happiness, "did not understand the sleeves; promised to be hot, "You lie in a ditch, and the heart of a puff : suddenly as a blindfold crush, - does not see a damn (TV).
Target relations - the subordinate term of the word combination denotes the goal of the action and is expressed by nouns with the prepositions for, on , etc., adverbs and infinitives: took for verification, stopped at rest ; lingering purposely, "came to congratulate," ... Blow into the tube for ordering , the commander submits (TV); On the vacant lot, near the apartment of Evreinov , schoolchildren gathered to play in small towns (MG); The elm branch looked into the coach. Andersen tore several leaves from her memory (Paust.).
Conditional and ceding relations are unproductive. Ceding relations - the subordinate term of the word combination expresses the condition of the action or condition, in spite of which the action is performed. They are expressed by nouns with prepositions despite, in spite of, and also by the verbal participles: went despite the fatigue, worked despite the danger, stumbled, continued to climb, the hero is the one who? Pvo - life in spite of death (MG); Ivan Ilyich was looking at the mirrorless bluish water gleaming in the sun, - his soul, in spite of everything, burst into happiness (A.T.).
Conditional relations are expressed by nouns with the preposition for , etc., and also by the verbal participles: you find it if you wish, "heard in silence," contracts cooling, "expands warming up", With this wealth ( associations), any thought and theme immediately acquire living features (Paust.); The attack failed and, obviously, under such conditions could not work (Sim.).
Functionally and semantically inseparable units are usually called phraseological units. Phraseological units cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready made units. The lexical components in phraseological units are stable and they are non-motivated i. e. its meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of its components and they do not allow their lexical components to be changed or substituted. •In phraseological units the individual components do not seem to possess any lexical meaning outside the word group.
Ex. red tape (bureaucratic methods), to get rid of; to take place; to lead the dance; to take care¹².
A. V. Koonin thinks that phraseology must be an independent linguistic science and not a part of lexicology. His -classification of phraseological units is based on the functions of them in speech. They are: nominating, interjectional and communicative.
V. V. Vinogradov classified phraseological units into three groups taking into consideration their motivation. They are:
1) phraseological fusions; they are such units which are completely non motivated word groups; Ex. to kick the bucket to get one's goat, to show the white feather.
In these word groups the meaning of the whole expressions is not derived from the meaning of components.
2) phraseological units: the meaning of such word-groups can be perceived through the metaphorical meaning of the whole phraseological unit or the meaning of which may be seen as a metaphorical transference of the meaning of the word group: ex. to show one's teeth, to know the way the wind blows, to stand to one's guns, to take care of;
3) phraseological collocations: They include motivated relatively stable word groups. They have a certain degree of stability; ex: to take an interest, to fall in love, to look •through one's fingers, meet the demand etc.
At present the term «phraseological unite is usually used not to all set expressions but only to those which are completely or partially nonmotivated1.
Prof N. Amasova gives two categories of phraseological units depending on whether just one component or both are used in phraseologically bound meaning. If all the components .have idiomatic meaning such phraseological units are called «idioms», ex: to toe the line (to do exactly as one is told), a free lance (a person who acts independently). If one of the components has bound specialized meaning dependent on the second component she called «phrasemes»¹³.
Ex. dutch courage (courage given by drink), to bring to book (to bring to justice), small years (in the childhood), small beers (weak beer). Stability of phraseological units is seen in its disallowance of the substitution of word groups. Ex: «to shrug one's-shoulders* does not allow to substitute either «shrug» or «shoulder».
Idiomaticity of phraseological units is lack of word groups. If a word group does not allow word by word translation it is called idiomatic word groups. Ex: to kick the bucket in the soup, under a cloud .
Prof. A. I. Smirnitsky states that a phraseological unit may be defined as specific word groups functioning as a word-equivalent. The phraseological units are single semantically inseparable units. They are used in one function in the sentence-and belong to one part of speech.
According to their semantic and grammatical inseparability we may classify the phraseological units into: noun equivalents (heavy father), verb equivalents (take place, break the-news) adverb equivalents (in the long run, high and low).
Prof. A. Koonin does not support Smirnitsky's point of view on the equivalence of phraseological units. A. Koonin points out that the components of phraseological units are mounted separately and therefore they can't be used in one function in the sentence. Ex. He gets rid of it. The problem of equivalency of phraseological units to words demands further investigation.
Among the phraseological units there are the so-called imperative phraseological units1.
Ex. God Bless his soul!, Curse her! Damn him!, Stay well!, Go well!, Heaven forbid!, Lord love us! etc.
These phraseological units mostly denote the emotional and expressive state of a person.
Proverbs, sayings and quotations exist also as ready made units with a specialized meaning of their own which can not be deduced from the meaning of their components. Therefore they may be included in phraseological units. Ex. East or West home is best, a friend in need is a friend indeed. To be or not to be.
The history of many phraseologisms is an interesting record of the nation's past, of its way of life, customs and' traditions. Many phraseological units are connected with commerce, Ex: to talk shop, to make the best of the bargain, to have all one's goods in the shop window, a drug on the market. Many phraseological units are associated with the sea (the waves). Ex; all at sea, to nail one's colours to the mast, to sail under false colours. Many phraseological units were borrowed from the Bible, Ex: the root of all evil. Daily bread¹⁴.
There is a subject of discussion among the linguists about the state of such combinations like «to give in», «to make up», «to take off», «to get up», «to give up», etc; what is the nature of the second element of such combinations? The second element of such units is not a word therefore they are not phraseological units. Phraseological units, as we know, consist of words. The second element is not a morpheme because it is not a part of the word, they are not adverbs because adverbs have definite lexical meanings and are used in a certain function in the sentence. But these units (get up, give up etc) have idiomatical meanings therefore. A. V. Koo-nin calls such units «set phrases* which have no phraseological character. There are synonyms among phraseological units,