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Protocol
The observance of protocol and agreed procedures is an essential factor for 
successful meetings and negotiations. It gives a recognized structure to the 
proceedings and provides an agreed code of conduct which should help 
reduce intercultural friction and misunderstanding. Aspects of protocol 
can include correct seating arrangements with due respect for seniority, 
the presentation of business cards and appropriate dress. It also includes 
procedures such as methods of voting, addressing remarks through the 
chair, the composition of committees, any limitations on the times allotted 
to speakers and the production of the minutes at the conclusion, as well as 
any official communiqués.
Although there are generally recognized standards of official protocol in 
international meetings, for example, within the UN, there is no standard-
ized international etiquette. In British culture, our traditions and values 
have produced an accepted code of behaviour. This is not, however, neces-
sarily transferable to another culture, and cultural mistakes are inevitable for 
the culturally unwary. Such areas include degrees of punctuality, politeness, 
informality or formality and exchanging gifts, as the same occasion will 
require a different code of behaviour depending on the cultural situation. 
This is discussed later in the chapter.
Shared experiences
Cohen contends that cultural strangers cannot rely on shared experiences of 
family values, religion, education, national history, traditions or beliefs as: 
‘Cultural meanings are basically subjective meanings shared by members 
of a particular cultural group’ (1999: 27). Shared experiences can include 
formal discussions at lunches, dinners, receptions and tour invitations, 
which provide opportunities for developing interpersonal relationships.

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The Effect of Culture on International Negotiations 165
People who operate in the international community may have a number 
of shared interests or experiences, for example, hobbies, sport and children 
studying abroad. These can be researched as part of the preparation for 
negotiations and can be seen as a form of ‘cultural shorthand’. They are 
extremely useful in preliminary, informal discussions, as ‘small talk’ or as 
an ‘ice-breaker’. They can therefore be used to advantage, particularly in 
the ‘getting to know you’ phase, and are most suitable when dealing with 
cultures where business is considered personal.
In certain cultures where building relationships and mutual trust are 
initially more important in the early stages of a negotiating process than 
decisions about agreeing a deal or obtaining a satisfactory outcome, such 
experiences are invaluable in helping to develop good working relation-
ships. However, the attempt to use shared experiences should be conducted 
with great care, as it is important to check the appropriateness and relevance 
of these experiences and whether they are fully understood. Once trust is 
established, it is easier to discuss openly if cultural differences might be 
affecting the issues.
The family and, indeed, the extended family are highly valued in many 
cultures (for example, in Africa and the Middle East), and therefore show-
ing interest in the well- being of one’s counterpart’s family is important 
when developing successful relationships and mutual trust. These examples 
of the value of shared experiences are useful in high- context cultures where 
the emphasis is initially more on developing personal relationships and 
less on the detail of the desired agreement. In
low- context cultures, in 
contrast, creating relationships is less important in the initial stages and 
only becomes more important when final agreement is made and contracts 
are signed.
Heads of state often meet in an informal, relaxed venue before the main 
negotiations commence. The President of the USA often takes VIP visitors 
to Camp David. In July 2004, when President Vladimir Putin visited George 
W. Bush at the Bush family compound in Kennebunkport, they went fish-
ing, a sport enjoyed by both men. This was designed to help thaw relations 
between Russia and the USA over the US plans for a European missile shield. 
President Putin said that he had enjoyed ‘the warm and homely atmosphere’ 
at Kennebunkport that ‘went way beyond’ what he had expected.
Humour
The use of humour as an ‘ice-breaker’, particularly at the beginning of 
negotiations, can often be useful. It is designed to help people relax, but is 
effective only if it is clearly understood and does not cause any embarrass-
ment or offence. It is therefore important to be fully aware of which subjects 
are taboo, particularly cultural and politically sensitive areas. Gaffes made in 
public at the beginning of a session can be difficult to overcome and their 

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166 Cross-Cultural Communication
residual effect can be longlasting. It is therefore essential to research this 
area carefully and avoid any jokes that may not translate into the desired 
meaning or that are culturally unacceptable. It is always worth remembering 
the old adage that ‘Humour is usually what gets lost in translation’.
As we have seen in Chapter 8, the use of humour in the more formal part 
of meetings is not always acceptable. There is a fine balance between making 
people laugh and relaxed and sharing the humour, and for all this to appear 
to some as lacking seriousness of purpose.