Cross- cultural Communication This page intentionally left blank

Resources available
The key to cultural profiling lies in the different methods used to identify 
cultural characteristics. A large number of tests, questionnaires and other 
instruments have been designed to help identify personality traits and the 
extent to which they are conducive to living and working successfully in a 
specified foreign culture. These can be broken down into three main catego-
ries, which are given in Figure 14.1 below.
Personality: psychometric testing tools of personality applied to different cultures and 
cultural clusters.
Management style: identification of key areas of difference in management style and 
their use in comparing one business culture with another.
Cultural style: a broader description of cultural traits, taking into account language, 
geographical background and history.
Figure 14.1 Types of cultural profiling
Personality and management studies are both employed in the recruit-
ment and training of appropriate personnel. Resources in this area include 
the application of Cattell’s 16 personality factors to cross- cultural interac-
tion and the Myers- Briggs Type Indicator developed by the Myers & Briggs 
Foundation (the latter is discussed in Chapter 6). The specific application to 
management comes from management studies conducted by Richard Lewis 
Communications, the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development in 
the UK and others.
The understanding of cultural style is a discipline much favoured in 
business schools, universities and other organizations. This approach involves 
a more holistic teaching method using pictures, films and interactive media 
to present a culture in all its aspects – traditions, folklore and lifestyle.
Key cultural indicators
The key cultural indicators that cultural profiling seeks to identify include 
the main background features which determine how a group of people 
approach life. Geography and vegetation are also key indicators, as 
are religion, kinship and relations with neighbours, including neighbouring 
communities. Much of this is encapsulated in the history of a community, 
which in turn will determine its core values along with its core fears, both 
of which are designed to ensure the survival of the group. Moreover, these 
will determine what they will resist and fight against. An awareness of these 
broad macro- features will help us to understand the expectations of a group 
from the outset. Although individuals may vary from this profile, knowledge 

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262 Cross-Cultural Communication
of the broad indicators and how to react to them is a very helpful step in 
understanding another culture.
In addition, there are the micro- factors, the more detailed features that help 
us to understand a community’s prevailing management style. Richard Lewis’ 
Lewis Model identifies management features according to how they organize 
their use of time (see also Chapter 3). Following Lewis and others, Tomalin 
and Nicks (2010) have identified five factors which differentiate management 
styles and which can be studied comparatively. They have summarized these 
features by using the acronym ‘ECOLE’, which stands for expectations, com-
munication, organization, leadership and etiquette. Within each category, 
they have identified a number of key differentiators, which are as follows:
Expectations (E): the core cultural values, the core cultural fears, the atti-
tudes to space and to time and the motivation factors that characterize 
a business culture.
Communication (C): the key communication features, whether people are typi-
cally direct or indirect in their mode of speech, whether they prefer detailed 
explanation or general inference in giving instructions, whether they prefer 
to explain background context before saying what they want or the other 
way round, whether they are formal or informal in their style of address, 
whether they believe that emotions should be displayed or held in check, 
and, finally, whether their style of speech is fast or slow. Another impor-
tant feature of communication is the understanding and the use of English 
as a world language. This was discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.
Organization (O): key features here include the business day and the 
business week, how people work in teams, how projects are organized 
and, above all, the attitude towards timely delivery of results.
Leadership (L): the predominant management style of a community is 
important in this category. How are decisions arrived at and communicated? 
Is responsibility held by the team or by individuals? What degree of 
delegation exists and what degree of responsibility exists within each 
level of delegation? The study of leadership can also cover gender issues, 
notably the position of women in leadership and the type of feedback 
and appraisal methods commonly in use.
Etiquette (E): although considered the most important factor because it is 
often the most evident feature in cross- cultural communication, etiquette 
is probably the least significant, simply because it is easier to change or 
adapt to. Nevertheless, there are three areas of etiquette that are seen to 
be of great importance. First is greetings and leave- taking. This can deter-
mine the first and last impressions. The second is gift- giving – knowing 
what to give and how much is acceptable, when to give and whether to 
wrap or unwrap in the presence of the giver. This can cause considerable 
embarrassment if done incorrectly. As regards hospitality, it is important 
to be aware of whether this is usually provided within the home or in 
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Cultural Profiling and Classification 263
a public restaurant. It is also advisable to be aware of the conventions 
regarding arrival and departure, what and how much to eat and drink, 
where to sit and how the system of toasts works.
The function of ECOLE and other similar systems helps visitors (particularly 
business visitors) to identify quickly the key areas of potential difference 
and decide on the degree of appropriate adaptation. This may depend on 
seniority and culture, but also on the type of event. The main aim should be 
to focus on the differences and decide whether these are significant. If they 
are, the next step is to consider how best to react.