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parties, however different their varied cultural backgrounds.
What is especially impressive about this recognition of the difficulties 
of
cross- cultural communication is the large body of relevant literature 
produced by scholars and practitioners on how best to cope with the uncer-
tainties of expatriate life abroad in circumstances where professional past 
experience at home provides little if any guidance.
Few busy chief executives and their subordinates, few diplomats and few 
NGO expatriates have the time and the energy to navigate their way suc-
cessfully through this vast literature, valuable as it is. This is precisely why 
this volume is so helpful. Both the authors have long experience as teachers 
and consultants in the field of
cross- cultural communication. Both are 
deeply versed in the literature on this topic and well understand the impact 
of culture shock. Most importantly, their text provides a lucid and detailed 
account of what the expatriate and business traveller might expect and 
how best to cope successfully. The tone throughout is detached and free 
of jargon; the authors’ commonsense prescriptions are easily understand-
able and the advice is always couched in practical terms. The substance of 
the text is based on careful and candid analysis of the pitfalls that await the 
unwary professional traveller. Case studies are provided and the analysis is 
informed by both wit and wisdom of a kind not easily available – if at all – 
in manageable form elsewhere. In short, the book clearly has intellectual 
depth based on a sound understanding of the complexity of cross- cultural 
communication. In addition, the difficulties of adjustment experienced by 
those returning home from their previous job are not neglected. The situa-
tion in the home culture will have changed: new colleagues will have been 
appointed and new structures and processes devised in the interim.
The authors are also sensitive to the changes that have occurred on 
the global scene since the end of the Cold War. Thus, they pay particular 
attention to the impact of globalization on corporations and governments 
alike. They rightly emphasize the ‘shift towards a more integrated and 
interdependent world economy’ (Charles Hill, International Business, 2003). 
Yet the overall theme of the book explicitly acknowledges the paradox that 
while ‘national markets have been merged into one large marketplace’, 
where the rules governing the economic process of buying and selling now 
enjoy
well- nigh universal acceptance, individual professional responses 
often remain culture bound. Understanding what that constraint means in 
practice for sensible cross- cultural communication is crucial for successful 
negotiation, whether arising from orthodox diplomatic engagement or the 
signing of a trade or investment deal. By the same token, NGO representa-
tives can profit from exposure to the arguments in this book.
x Foreword

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What this study does – above all – is to offer helpful, carefully devised 
signposts of what the authors call ‘coping strategies’ to guide those who 
seek their fortunes – whether those of governments or corporations – in 
a world where cultural exceptionalism (some would say eccentricity) remains 
a potential source of division and profound misunderstanding. Any would- be 
travellers would be well advised to include this superb study in their 
briefcases along with the inevitable pile of business agendas, conference 
papers and all the accoutrements required for coping with both the ‘near 
and far abroad’.
J.E. Spence OBE
Foreword xi

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xii
Preface
We are all living in an increasingly globalized, diverse and multicultural 
world with different communication styles, attitudes, behaviour and cultural 
values. It is particularly important in international business management, 
marketing, human resource management and diplomacy that we are aware 
of the need for improved cross- cultural communication, for without it, the 
result may be the breakdown of cooperation, understanding and trust in 
business, diplomacy and international negotiations.
We need to be able to identify the complexities and consequences of 
cultural diversity in such areas as verbal and non- verbal communication, 
attitudes towards time, status, authority and the structure of organizations. 
We can then move on to understand more fully how to overcome the 
barriers to cross- cultural communication and become more effective in such 
areas as international negotiations, the transfer of skills and knowledge 
across cultures, building and working in multinational teams, and the use 
of cultural diplomacy as a form of ‘soft power’. We also need to be able to 
assess the competencies and cultural awareness training required by those 
selected to live and operate in this challenging environment.
Cross- cultural awareness and the development of appropriate
cross-
cultural communication skills are a prerequisite for living harmoniously 
and working effectively with other members of the international com-
munity. The emergence of India and China as economic giants and the 
increasing influence of globalization have led to greater emphasis on the 
cultural dimensions of international business, diplomacy and international 
relations. As a result, many universities and colleges have either developed 
specific degrees or modules in cross- cultural awareness and cross-cultural/
international communication or have made extensive reference to these 
areas in their undergraduate and postgraduate courses, both in the UK 
and overseas. The content of this book is therefore directly applicable to, 
for example, cultural studies, international business courses, international 
management, human resource management, international diplomacy and 
international studies. It is also aimed at those responsible for organizing 
courses for public bodies, NGOs and business enterprises.
As authors, we have extensive experience teaching these aspects to both 
UK and international students at undergraduate and postgraduate levels. 
We have also been extensively involved in cross- cultural training for busi-
ness in the UK and abroad. Our challenge is to design a reference book to 
be used by both universities and training institutions as a practical guide 
to developing a deeper understanding of the need for cultural awareness 
and cross- cultural communication. The content is based on cross- cultural 

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programmes developed by the authors and combines theory and practice 
through a series of real- life mini case studies and critical incident scenarios, 
and covers key concepts with a wide variety of examples, supported by 
a comprehensive reading list. In addition, each chapter can stand alone as 
the background material for developing a teaching module.
The book aims to achieve the following:
develop a thorough understanding of the main theoretical and research 
background and concepts relevant to
cross- cultural communication, 
comparing their value as well as their limitations and their application to 
contemporary situations;
identify and apply strategies to overcome the barriers to effective cross-
cultural communication;
identify and evaluate the benefits of cultural diversity and the develop-
ment of appropriate coping strategies to deal with culture shock encoun-
tered when living and working abroad and the subsequent repatriation 
to the home country;
evaluate the role of cultural awareness in key international issues, such 
as globalization, multiculturalism, cultural branding and cultural diplo-
macy, along with the use of English as a major international language;
identify the skills and competencies required for success in the interna-
tional environment, including the personnel selection methods available 
and the options for pre- departure cultural training;
assess how cultural issues affect international negotiations, leadership, 
decision making, the transfer of skills and knowledge across cultures and 
successful working in a multicultural team.
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Preface xiii

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xiv
Acknowledgements
We should like to acknowledge the contribution, inspiration and the 
encouragement we have received from Professor Nabil Ayad and our 
colleagues at the Diplomatic Academy of London at the University of 
Westminster, and subsequently at the University of East Anglia’s London 
campus.
Our book owes much to our discussions with our postgraduate students 
when we have both been module leaders, teaching Communicating across 
Cultures and Cultural Awareness. Our students have come from many coun-
tries and have included those from the diplomatic field, from embassies, 
High Commissions and international NGOs, as well as from multinational 
companies and government departments. They have all contributed to our 
knowledge through seminars, discussions and participation in conferences 
and we pay tribute to their influence and enthusiasm. We also acknowledge 
the contribution from our international business students, both at universi-
ties and during in- company training, to whom we have been emphasizing 
the importance of cross- cultural communication in the field of international 
business.
During this time, we have become increasingly aware of the need to 
attempt to produce an easy- to- read yet comprehensive book which encom-
passes the topics we have found to be the most significant. We hope to have 
included reference to those experts who have had the most impact through 
their research. These we have considered to be the ‘cultural gurus’ who have 
inspired us to take a lasting interest in the influence of culture on diplomacy 
and business in the increasingly globalized and interdependent world.
We have produced further reading lists for each chapter, as well as listing 
our references. Regarding the latter, we apologise in advance for any errors 
or omissions, and we have, wherever possible, sought permission for any 
lengthy quotations. If we have erred in this, it has not been by design and 
mistakes will be rectified in any future edition.
We acknowledge in particular permission to quote from the follow-
ing: Geert Hofstede B.V. for material used in Figures 2.5–2.11; Nicholas 
Brealey Publishing for material in Figures 3.2 and 3.3 and for additional 
material published in R. Lewis in When Cultures Collide (2011), J. Mole,