Cross- cultural Communication This page intentionally left blank

Relationship to time
In addition to the five ‘relationship orientations’, another major cultural dif-
ference identified by Trompenaars is the way people deal with the concept 
of time. In this sense, his research is very similar to that carried out by the 
Halls (see Chapter 2). This is summarized below:
Sequential or
monochronic- oriented cultures view activities as linear and 
as a sequence. People tend to do only one activity at a time, respecting 
punctuality and preferring to follow plans as laid down. Time is seen as 
being measurable and is often given a monetary value. Relationships tend 
to be subordinate to schedules. There is a preference for management 
techniques such as critical path analysis, and time management is a rec-
ognized skill. Tasks are broken down into predetermined units of time.
Synchronic or polychronic cultures exist where people tend to do more than 
one activity at a time, appointments are approximate and relationships 
are given importance above schedules. Time is considered to be more 
flexible than in monochronic cultures.
Trompenaars also describes time in three phases: past, present and future. 
We attribute different levels of importance to each.  Past- and- present- oriented 
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52 Cross-Cultural Communication
cultures (for example, the UK, France and Japan) emphasize tradition, 
gradual evolution and continuity with the present. They may seek exam-
ples from the past in making decisions about the future.  Future- oriented 
cultures (for example, the USA) are likely to interpret present actions 
in terms of their future effects and future opportunity, stressing radical 
change and continuous development as indicators of success.
Man’s relationship with nature
In the first edition of Riding the Waves of Culture (1993), Trompenaars identi-
fies two major attitudes to nature: the extent to which people in a culture 
feel they have control over nature and the extent to which they feel they 
can have an impact on their environment. This is based on the way we seek 
to have control over our own lives, destiny or fate and what impact we have 
on our surroundings.  Inner- directed people believe they have the ability to 
control nature by imposing their will upon it. They see nature as a complex 
environment which can be controlled or managed if the right expertise or 
techno logy is used. Current examples are cultures that seek to exert some 
control over the perceived future effects of climate change and the preserva-
tion of endangered species. One’s personal resolve is the starting point for 
action. Survival is taken to mean acting with or against nature. Such people 
do not believe in luck or predestination. They are inner- directed, that is, 
one’s own personal resolution is the starting point for any action.
 Outer- directed people believe that man is part of nature and must go along 
with its laws and forces. They should operate in harmony with the environ-
ment and show respect for the necessary ecological balance. They do not 
believe they can really shape their own destiny. Nature moves in mysterious 
ways and therefore it is impossible to predict what may happen, for example, 
earthquakes, tsunamis, droughts and floods.