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particularist.
Dimension 2: individualism versus collectivism
Individualist cultures focus on individual performance and achievement. 
Collectivist cultures define an individual in terms of his or her relationship 
with a group and its goals, and how people adapt their actions in relation 
to the community. These two factors are the same as in Hofstede’s work, 
with the notable exception that Trompenaars contends that in an individua-
list culture such as the USA, the individual chooses to avoid or adhere to 
the values of the group, whereas in a collectivist culture such as Japan, the 
individual is constrained by the group. Trompenaars, however, considers 
Hungary and the Czech Republic to be relatively individualistic, despite 
their communist past.
Dimension 3: affective versus neutral
Reason and emotion both play a role in our relationships with one another. 
The extent to which individuals allow their own reason or emotions to 
intervene in actions or decisions will determine whether they are from a 
neutral or affective culture.
If we are from a neutral culture, for example, Japan or the UK, where 
reason dominates, we are less likely to show our feelings or emotions, but 
are likely to keep them carefully under control. In a neutral culture, people 
are taught that it is incorrect to show excessive emotions. This does not 
mean they do not have feelings, it just means that the degree to which feel-
ings may become apparent is limited. They accept and are aware of their 
feelings, but are in control of them. Neutral cultures may think the more 
explicit signals of an affective culture too excited and over- emotional.
However, if we are from an affective culture, for example, Latin American 
or Mediterranean cultures, where emotion is more overt, we are likely to 
show our feelings more openly by laughing, smiling and showing anger 
or frustration. Such displays of emotion are not objected to as it is not 
considered necessary to hide one’s feelings or to keep them ‘bottled up’. 
Our feelings will find an immediate outlet and are openly and naturally 
expressed. In such a culture, people do not object to an open display of 
emotions.

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50 Cross-Cultural Communication
In the workplace, neutral managers therefore tend to contain their emotions 
and, for them, contractual concerns are more important than personal 
concerns. In contrast, emotional managers tend to show their feelings and 
emphasize personal relations. British managers tend to be more neutral and 
generally more distant, whereas Italian managers tend to be more emo-
tional, since, for them, the expression of their feelings is important.
Dimension 4: diffuse versus specific
The diffuse and specific dimension describes whether we allow other people 
into multiple areas of our lives or only into specific areas. It therefore deals 
with our range of involvement. It also describes whether we are prepared to 
show other people more than one level of our personality or the specific level 
appropriate to a specific situation. An example would be our relationship with 
a superior. In a specific culture (for example, Germany), individuals have a large 
public space that they readily let others enter and share, and a smaller private, 
‘restricted’ space that they guard closely and share with only close friends 
and associates. A diffuse culture (for example, the USA) is one in which both 
public and private space are relatively similar in size and individuals carefully 
guard their public space because entry into public space also affords entry 
into private space. In specific cultures, there is a strong separation of work life 
and private life, whereas in diffuse cultures, work life and private life are often 
closely linked. In developing countries, but also in Mediterranean and Latin 
American countries, work and social interaction go hand in hand and are seen 
as two sides of the same coin. In Spain or Mexico, for example, the working 
day is extended to allow for shopping, meeting friends, long working lunches 
and even siestas. This is a diffuse business culture where the work/life balance 
is mixed. In Scandinavia, however, the working day is shorter and work life 
and social life are usually kept separate. This is a good example of specific 
behaviour. Trompenaars’ specific versus diffuse dimension is in many ways 
similar to the Halls’ low- context versus high- context cultures.
Example
In a diffuse culture, you would accord your boss/superior as much respect 
because of his or her position or status outside the workplace as you do at 
work. In a specific culture, the amount of respect you give your boss will 
depend on the situation. For example, if you are a better bridge or tennis 
player, you would expect him or her to respect your advice because of 
your greater prowess or experience in those activities.
Dimension 5: achievement versus ascription
We accord different levels of status to different individuals. How we accord 
that status indicates whether we are from an  achievement- oriented culture or 

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Key Thinkers in Cross- Cultural Communication (2) 51
an ascriptive culture. Ascriptive cultures attribute status according to such 
variables as age, social class, seniority, gender, wealth, education and connec-
tions. Achievement- oriented cultures (for example, the USA) attribute status 
according to an individual’s personal achievement and performance. People 
in such cultures believe they have to prove themselves to achieve status 
on the merits of what they have accomplished through their own efforts 
and actions. This has important implications when we try to negotiate 
across cultures. The young go- ahead manager from an achievement- oriented 
culture such as the USA may be seen as brash and disrespectful by an older 
manager from an ascriptive culture such as Japan. Ascriptive managers tend 
to rise because of their personal loyalty or family position, whereas achieve-
ment managers rise through competitive promotion. This can be seen, for 
example, in Germany, which is more achievement- oriented, whereas Italy is 
more ascription- oriented.
Trompenaars also identified different systems of promotion and authority 
in the countries he surveyed. In many countries, particularly those domi-
nated by small and medium- sized family- run enterprises, he noticed that 
family and personal ties were important sources of management promotion. 
Such business cultures put a subsidiary stress on efficiency and a stronger 
stress on personal loyalty. In such cultures, promotion could be said to be 
ascribed by the boss to a favoured person rather than to the impersonal 
process of recruitment,
short- listing, interviewing and selection, which 
would be characteristic of an achievement- oriented business culture such as 
in Germany and the USA.