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partner. Unless these problems are recognized, there is the risk that dual 
career couples may present a barrier to international mobi lity. The resulting 
problems can include reduced availability of staff for overseas appointments, 
and further selection may be from a diminished pool of talent, as well as 
exerting a negative effect on performance and retention overseas.
The problem of the dual career is often of concern when families have relied 
on both partners working for economic and self- fulfilment reasons. There 
may be problems in obtaining work permits in some countries; in addition, 
the employment of expatriates, particularly women, may be discouraged. 
However, a company with a sound human resource policy has a duty of care 
to its personnel, particularly when they face the difficulties of coping with 
a new culture, and some companies will endeavour to find employment for 
the other partner, either in the company itself or elsewhere.
The costs of expatriate failure
The costs associated with expatriate failure can be high both to the com-
pany and the individuals concerned. They can be divided into the following 
categories.
Direct costs
Direct costs include air fares, foreign assignment salaries and allowances, 
training costs and costs of relocation.
Indirect costs
Indirect costs are more difficult to quantify but may include loss of good-
will, impact on company image, the effect on morale of local staff and on 
the individuals concerned and their families.
Methods of preparation
Methods of preparation can include the following:
None at all, mainly because of urgency or crisis, for example, a natural 
disaster or a political coup in the country overseas.
Shadowing one’s predecessor in the job, which entails working with the 
current member of staff for a short period before he or she returns home.
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108 Cross-Cultural Communication
Working a short overlap period, that is, working in tandem with the 
person from whom the employee will be taking over.
‘Look/see’ orientation visit with or without one’s partner to assess the 
conditions in the overseas country.
Informal briefing and discussion with colleagues, in particular with those 
who have just returned.
A formal, customized briefing course held within the company or at an 
external specialist organization. Such a course should, where appropriate, 
include the non- working partner and the rest of the family.