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National heroes and heroines
The use of sporting ‘icons’ and the cult of celebrities have been used to 
achieve cultural influence. An example was David Beckham in support of 
the UK’s bid for the 2012 Olympics in Singapore. Negative instances, of 
course, can have an adverse effect, such as the exposure of drug cheats in, 
for example, athletics and cycling. The list of heroes and heroines, both 
past and present, could include Churchill and Nelson for the UK, Mahatma 
Gandhi for India and Nelson Mandela for South Africa.
Diasporas
A significant immigrant population can also influence the image of a coun-
try abroad by virtue of its skills and culture, which add value to the host 
country and reflect well on their country of origin. The Irish, Scottish and 
Indian diasporas, for example, have been notably effective in this respect. 
However, the image of diasporas can act as a disadvantage when the migrant 
community is seen as under- privileged. This has been the case, for example, 
with North African immigrants in France, particularly in the outer suburbs 
of Paris, Turkish migrants in Germany and Mexican immigrants, notably in 
the southern states of the USA.
Nation brand management
Anholt and Hildreth (2004) suggest that cultural diplomacy can be legiti-
mately characterized as part of a ‘nation brand’, a term Anholt originally 
coined in 1998. It is an instrument through which other nations and their 
people can be influenced and has its roots in what has been called the 
‘country of origin effect’. The concept of nation branding is derived from 
the commercial notion of a brand. A brand is a set of rational and emotional 
benefits and experiences that enable a product to command a premium in 
its chosen market.
Another way of describing a brand is a name, term, sign or combina-
tion of these that is intended to identify the goods and services of one 
business or organisation and to differentiate it from those of its competi-
tors. Only when this product or service kindles an emotional dialogue 
and connection with the consumer can this product truly qualify to be 
a brand.

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Cultural Diplomacy and Nation Branding 233
Anholt maintains that nation branding is most likely to be successful 
when the brand is lived by the citizens: ‘Country branding occurs when 
public speaks to public; when a substantial proportion of the population of 
the country – not just civil servants and paid figureheads – gets behind the 
strategy and lives it out in their everyday dealings with the outside world’ 
(Anholt, 2003: 123).
Nation brand management is something that a nation uses to project its 
image, employing the instruments of cultural diplomacy. It aims to help a 
country raise its international profile through imaginative policies of pro-
moting diplomatic, economic, entertainment and sporting prowess. These 
aims can be characterized as follows:
creation of a positive, confident self- image of a country;
achievement of greater political acceptability, respect and influence inter-
nationally;
raising export potential;
increasing attraction as a destination for inward investment;
increasing tourism and tourism- generated income.
Effective nation branding can influence where foreign companies invest and 
market their goods or outsource their manufacturing. It may also be instru-
mental in persuading international sporting bodies, such as the International 
Olympic Committee, where major sporting events are to be held. The image 
of a country may also influence the decision as to where supranational 
bodies, such as the EU and NATO, establish their headquarters.
Anholt considers that his central conception of nation brand is to regard the 
image or reputation of a particular country as a whole, which would include 
all its international actors, those from the general population, its business 
companies, politicians, celebrities and the diaspora. It would also include 
its engagement in cultural and diplomatic relations, product and invest-
ment promotion, talent recruitment and, most importantly, its actions on 
the international stage. However, he strongly considers that it is completely 
impossible to simply ‘brand’ a nation in the commercial product sense.
Anholt has therefore distanced himself from the concept of ‘branding’ 
with its marketing implications. He maintains: ‘On the one hand, “brand” 
is a perfect metaphor for the way places compete with each other in the 
global marketplace for products, services, events, ideas, visitors, talent, 
investment and influence. This is simply the reality of globalisation and it 
is inescapable. On the other hand, “branding” makes many people think of 
superficial marketing tricks, perhaps some cynical portrayal of the nation 
state and other human communities.’ In his view, a country’s reputation 
is defined by what it does, by what it makes and not by how it advertises 
itself. He maintains: ‘A national reputation cannot be constructed; it can 
only be earned.’
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234 Cross-Cultural Communication