Economic Growth Second Edition
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BarroSalaIMartin2004Chap1-2
2.2
Firms Firms produce goods, pay wages for labor input, and make rental payments for capital input. Each firm has access to the production technology, Y (t) = F[K (t), L(t), T (t)] where Y is the flow of output, K is capital input (in units of commodities), L is labor input (in person-hours per year), and T (t) is the level of the technology, which is assumed to grow at the constant rate x ≥ 0. Hence, T (t) = e xt , where we normalize the initial level of technology, T (0), to 1. The function F(·) satisfies the neoclassical properties discussed in chapter 1. In particular, Y exhibits constant returns to scale in K and L, and each input exhibits positive and diminishing marginal product. Growth Models with Consumer Optimization 95 We showed in chapter 1 that a steady state coexists with technological progress at a constant rate only if this progress takes the labor-augmenting form Y (t) = F[K (t), L(t) · T (t)] If we again define “effective labor” as the product of raw labor and the level of technology, ˆL ≡ L · T (t), the production function can be written as Y = F(K, ˆL) (2.17) We shall find it convenient to work with variables that are constant in the steady state. In chapter 1, we showed that the steady state of the model with exogenous technical progress was such that the per capita variables grew at the rate of technological progress, x . This property will still hold in the present model. Hence, we will deal again with quantities per unit of effective labor: ˆy ≡ Y/ ˆL and ˆk ≡ K/ ˆL The production function can then be rewritten in intensive form, as in equation (1.38), ˆy = f (ˆk) (2.18) where f (0) = 0. It can be readily verified that the marginal products of the factors are given by 10 ∂Y/∂ K = f (ˆk) ∂Y/∂ L = [ f (ˆk) − ˆk · f (ˆk)] · e xt (2.19) The Inada conditions, discussed in chapter 1, imply f (ˆk) → ∞ as ˆk → 0 and f (ˆk) → 0 as ˆk → ∞. We think of firms as renting the services of capital from the households that own the capital. (None of the results would change if the firms owned the capital, and the households owned shares of stock in the firms.) If we let R (t) be the rental rate of a unit of capital, a firm’s total cost for capital is R K , which is proportional to K . We assume that capital services can be increased or decreased without incurring any additional expenses, such as costs for installing machines or making other changes. We consider these kinds of adjustment costs in chapter 3. We assume, as in chapter 1, a one-sector production model in which one unit of output can be used to generate one unit of household consumption, C, or one unit of additional 10. We can write Y = ˆL · f (ˆk). Differentiation of Y with respect to K , holding fixed L and t, leads to ∂Y/∂ K = f (ˆk). Differentiation of Y with respect to L, holding fixed K and t, leads to ∂Y/∂ L = [ f (ˆk) − ˆk · f (ˆk)]e xt . 96 Chapter 2 capital, K . Therefore, as long as the economy is not at a corner solution in which all current output goes into consumption or new capital, the price of K in terms of C will be fixed at unity. Because C will be nonzero in equilibrium, we have to be concerned only with the possibility that none of the output goes into new capital; in other words, that gross investment is 0. Even in this situation, the price of K in terms of C would remain at unity if capital were reversible in the sense that the existing stocks could be consumed on a one-for-one basis. With reversible capital, the economy’s gross investment can be negative, and the price of K in units of C stays at unity. Although this situation may apply to farm animals, economists usually assume that investment is irreversible. In this case, the price of K in units of C is one only if the constraint of nonnegative aggregate gross investment is nonbinding in equilibrium. We maintain this assumption in the following analysis, and we deal with irreversible investment in appendix 2B (section 2.9). Since capital stocks depreciate at the constant rate δ ≥ 0, the net rate of return to a household that owns a unit of capital is R − δ. 11 Recall that households can also receive the interest rate r on funds lent to other households. Since capital and loans are perfect substitutes as stores of value, we must have r = R − δ or, equivalently, R = r + δ. The representative firm’s flow of net receipts or profit at any point in time is given by π = F(K, ˆL) − (r + δ) · K − wL (2.20) As in chapter 1, the problem of maximizing the present value of profit reduces here to a problem of maximizing profit in each period without regard to the outcomes in other periods. Profit can be written as π = ˆL · [ f (ˆk) − (r + δ) · ˆk − we −xt ] (2.21) A competitive firm, which takes r and w as given, maximizes profit for given ˆL by setting f (ˆk) = r + δ (2.22) Also as before, in a full-market equilibrium, w equals the marginal product of labor corre- sponding to the value of ˆk that satisfies equation (2.22): [ f (ˆk) − ˆk · f (ˆk)]e xt = w (2.23) This condition ensures that profit equals zero for any value of ˆL. 11. More generally, if the price of capital can change over time, the real rate of return for owners of capital equals R /φ − δ + ˙φ/φ, where φ is the price of capital in units of consumables. In the present case, where φ = 1, the capital-gain term, ˙ φ/φ, vanishes, and the rate of return simplifies to R − δ. |
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