Questions, suggestions and issues to consider
1. Are speech acts really part of grammar?
2. What is the difference between declaratives and declarations in the above text?
3. Take a speech act such as suggesting and try to think of all the possible ways of
realising it in English. Then analyse them according to their clause type.
4. Think of all the ways in which a modal auxiliary such as can can be used and
think of all the possible speech acts it can be involved in.
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E X T E N S I O N
CONDITIONALS
In this section there are two readings. They are on the same topic, sentences expressing conditions,
and both are pedagogic in nature, being aimed at teaching materials which present a misleadingly
simple (and, at the same time, complicated) picture of this area of English grammar.
Conditional sentences are generally equated with sentences with ‘if’, i.e. multiple complex
sentences with a subordinate, adverbial clause introduced by ‘if’, for example:
‘If you listen carefully, you can hear the sea.’
However, there is a mismatch between form and function here (cf. B9). On the one hand, ‘if’ does
not always signal conditions. Sometimes it can have an idea of ‘concession’ (i.e. similar to
‘although’), especially when used in a verbless clause:
‘They were happy, if exhausted.’
On the other hand, there are many ways of expressing conditions that do not use ‘if’: other
conjunctions such as ‘provided that’, ‘as/so long as’; other constructions, such as an imperative
plus ‘and’ (i.e. a compound rather than a complex sentence):
‘Do that and you’ll be sorry.’ (‘If you do that . . .’)
or inversion:
‘Had I known about the problem earlier, I could have done something.’ (See A11)
Nevertheless, it is clearly sentences with ‘if’ that are the subject of the two readings.
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