Factors affecting location decisions in international operations – a Delphi study
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MacCarthyAtthirawongDELPHIInt.Manuf.IJOPM2003rg
Part B of the questionnaire In Part B of the questionnaire, panel members were asked to rate the importance of the major factors and their sub-factors generally in international location decisions, using a seven-point Likert scale. The results for the major factors over the two rounds of the Delphi study are presented first. The results for the most important sub-factors are then presented. The importance of major factors affecting international location decisions. In the first round, the panellists were asked to rate the importance of 13 major factors for international location decisions generally. The mean ratings of these factors are presented in Figure 3 (1 – not important to 7 – very important). Cost is ranked highest among all major factors. Infrastructure, labour characteristics, government and political factors and economic factors are also significant factors highlighted, in decreasing order. It is also apparent that the ratings for the top four factors i.e. cost, infrastructure, labour characteristics and government and political factors are very close to one another and all are rated relatively highly. The two factors rated of least importance were proximity to parent company’s facilities and proximity to competition. In the second round, very few comments were made on the relative rankings of the 13 factors. It was noted by one panellist that “proximity to markets/customers” should rank more highly and that “proximity to parent 803 company’s facilities” should be rated as of no importance. Two panellists suggested that each location decision is unique and different from others. Hence the importance of each factor might vary from one situation to another and would depend on sectors or market types. It was also noted that these factors are sometimes contradictory and sometimes complementary. It was recommended that a company should check the factors that are relevant to its goals. The importance of sub-factors. The relative importance of sub-factors was also explored in Part B of the questionnaire for each of the major factors above. Following the first round of the study the results from the sub-factors of those major factors that had an average rating above 3.50 were fed back to panellists in the second round for comment. It was felt that an average rating above 3.5 for a major factor indicated that it was acknowledged as important generally in international location decisions and that its sub-factors should be explored. Eleven major factors had an average rating exceeding 3.5. The results for each sub-factor are summarised below. In each case (Figures 4 – 14) the sub-factors are ranked in decreasing order of mean scores. In the second round panellists were asked to comment on the rankings of each of these sets of sub-factors. In general, there was wide agreement across the panel on the order of the rankings of sub-factors in the second round but a number of comments, interpretations and reflections were added. Costs. Figure 4 shows the relative importance of the sub-factors of costs obtained from the first round. 804 Figure 3. Key factors affecting international location decisions The results from round 2 revealed that the majority of panellists agreed with the order of importance cost sub-factors but valuable additional comments were made. It was argued that the rankings might apply only for low-value types of operations. Some panellists also argued that the ranking of these sub-factors might vary by industry or sector. It was argued that for highly automated industries, “wage rates” might not be the most important factor. “Land costs” for instance are likely to be a more important factor in some types of industries. One panellist noted that “other factors”, specifically “system costs and integration costs” are increasingly important but they are ignored by many managers. It was noted that “utility and energy costs” in the Gulf area attract some international companies in some sectors to move manufacturing plants to that region. Infrastructure. Figure 5 shows the relative importance of infrastructure sub-factors obtained from the first round. Infrastructure is regarded as one of the most important factors in dealing with international location decisions. 805 Figure 4. Relative importance of sub-factors of costs Figure 5. Relative importance of sub-factors of infrastructure In the second round, a small number of panellists argued against the ranking of these sub-factors, with reasons such as “telecommunication systems” being increasingly important in some businesses. Labour characteristics. Figure 6 displays the relative importance of the sub-factors of labour characteristics obtained after round 1. There was a high degree of consensus on these findings in the second round of the study. It was argued that the importance of “attitudes towards work and labour turnover” should rank more highly. Importantly it was noted that in addition to the availability of labour force, “availability of management resource and specific skills” are also critical. Government and political factors. Figure 7 presents the relative importance of the sub-factors of government and political factors obtained after round 1. 806 Figure 6. Relative importance of sub-factors of labour characteristics Figure 7. Relative importance of sub-factors of government and political factors There was also general agreement among panel members on these sub-components and their rankings after the second round. It was suggested that “consistency of government policy” is more likely to be important than “record of government stability” in some particular countries such as those in the Far East. It was noted that firms should also consider the “historic relationships between host and home countries” when considering international location decisions. Economic factors. Figure 8 presents the relative importance of economic sub-factors obtained after the first round of the study. In the second round of the study most panellists agreed with the rankings. However, it was noted that this ranking may reflect the location of manufacturing plants in “the developing countries”. It was also noted that “the strength of currency against the US dollar” may be an important issue in international location decisions and should rank more highly, as it directly affects costs and profit. Legal and regulatory framework. Figure 9 presents the relative importance of the legal and regulatory framework sub-factors, obtained after round 1. There was strong consensus on these issues after the second round of the study. It was noted that “well-established bankruptcy laws” are an important aspect of the “legal system” sub-factor. An important comment was that “protection of patents” is increasingly important in international location decisions. Proximity to markets/customers. Figure 10 presents the relative importance of the sub-factors of proximity to markets/customers, obtained from the first round. 807 Figure 8. Relative importance of sub-factors of economic factors The panellists largely agreed on this issue after the second round of the study. However, it was commented by some of the panellists that the relative importance of these issues would depend on the objectives and strategic motivations of the firm. Proximity to suppliers. Figure 11 presents the relative importance of the sub-factors related to proximity to suppliers, obtained from the first round. The results from the second round revealed that the panellists clearly agreed with these issues and their relative importance. However, it was commented that the rankings of these issues might be appropriate only for some countries. Quality of life. Figure 12 presents the relative importance of the sub-factors of quality of life, obtained from the first round. 808 Figure 9. Relative importance of sub-factors of legal and regulatory framework Figure 10. Relative importance of sub-factors of proximity to markets/customers There was a high consensus on these rankings across the panel members after both rounds of the survey. However, it was commented by one panellist that these issues are not significant for many countries when considering international location decision choices. A specific comment was made that the “crime rate” sub-factor should be replaced with “police record in combating crime”. Characteristics of a specific location. Figure 13 shows the relative importance of the sub-factors of characteristics of a specific location, obtained from the first round. In the second round, most of the panellists agreed with the results. Two issues were identified. First, one panellist noted that these findings might fit with some particular geographical areas such as the developing countries rather than international location decisions in general. The second issue noted was on the ranking of some sub-factors. One panellist suggested that the “attitude of local community to a location” should rank more highly and this 809 Figure 11. Relative importance of sub-factors of proximity to suppliers Figure 12. Relative importance of sub-factors of quality of life sub-factor is increasingly significant over time. It was also felt by a panellist that the “physical conditions” issue might rank more highly. Social and cultural factors. Figure 14 shows the relative importance of the social and cultural sub-factors, obtained from the first round. Overall, the panellists agreed with the rankings of these sub-factors after the second round. It was argued by a panellist that “language” should be the most important issue among all components, while another argued that “customer characteristics” should rank in the top position. It was also commented that “culture” was a vague term and “could mean anything”. Summary of key findings The key findings from the Delphi study can be summarised as follows: (1) The major motivations for firms to manufacture across national borders are, in order of decreasing importance: . ability to gain access to low labour costs and labour skills; . ability to gain access to markets; . tax incentives and other privileges from the host government; . ability to gain access to host raw materials and technology; . counterattack against competitors. 810 Figure 13. Relative importance of sub-factors of characteristics of a specific location Figure 14. Relative importance of sub-factors of social and cultural factors (2) However, motivations may depend on the type of business or nature of the business environment. (3) Five steps are identified in making international location decisions: . make clear overall business strategies; . investigate regional and country-specific factors; . identify relevant factors for each location alternative; . evaluate the alternatives against established criteria; . select location and implement. (4) The top five factors identified that may strongly influence international location decisions generally are, in decreasing order of importance: . costs; . infrastructure; . labour characteristics; . government and political factors; . economic factors. (5) The importance of factors affecting international location decisions is influenced by the sector and market type. (6) All sub-factors identified from the list of each of the major factors were ranked according to their average scores. The top ten sub-factors identified, that may strongly influence international location decisions are listed below in decreasing order of importance: . quality of labour force; . existence of modes of transportation; . quality and reliability of modes of transportation; . availability of labour force; . quality and reliability of utilities; . wage rates; . motivation of workers; . telecommunication systems; . record of government stability; . industrial relations laws. (7) However, concerns were expressed by some panellists with regard on some of these sub-factors. They might not be significant in particular geographical regions or may be relevant for some types of operations only. Additional sub-factors identified, which are increasingly important in international location decisions are: 811 . protection of patents; . availability of management resources and specific skills; . system and integration costs; . historic relationships between host and home countries. (8) Location factors and their importance vary depending on the nature or type of business and may depend on the geographical region in which location is being considered. Each business sector has specific factors that firms take, or should take into consideration when considering a location choice and the importance of each factor is not equal for every case. Each geographical area has prominent factors that may influence location decisions. (9) The quality of people used in the decision making process as well as having the right information are highlighted as being of particular concern when dealing with international location decisions. Discussion The study has explored the dominant motivations for, and factors affecting companies in deciding to make international location decisions for manufacturing plants generally. The significance of the findings is discussed below. Motivations for location internationally The findings lend support to other studies which suggest that companies are driven by a variety of motives when they decide to locate internationally, for instance, the ability to gain access to low costs of production, the ability to gain access to markets, tax incentives and benefits from the host governments (e.g. Christopher, 1994; Dunning, 1994; Ferdows, 1997). An important issue highlighted by the panellists is that the motivations depend on type of business and nature of business environment. Pongpanich (1999) supports this view, noting that the ability to access markets is a key reason for location in consumer and commodity product sectors. Steps for the decision process The study has highlighted five key stages in the decision-making process for international location choices. The stages identified develop and extend those noted in other studies (Vos, 1997; Pongpanich, 1999). Decision-makers should start with gathering information relevant to regional and country-specific factors for each location alternative with regards to the requirements and objectives of the firm. Such factors may be both tangible and intangible. Several methods are suggested to evaluate the location alternatives such as cost-benefit analysis. However, decision-makers should ensure that all factors are evaluated for each location alternatives. A number of optimization modelling techniques based on 812 mathematical programming have been reported in the literature (e.g. Canel and Khumawala, 1996; Geotschalckx et al., 1998) but driven usually by a single quantitative objective, e.g. minimising the costs of investment. Such approaches are limited and need to be enhanced to allow qualitative factors to be analysed and integrated with quantitative factors in order to select an appropriate international location. Practical tools and techniques need to be developed for evaluating international location decisions that can take into consideration a wide range of factors including both objective and subjective aspects. Major factors influencing international location decisions Costs: overall, costs are the most important factors highlighted in this study. Firms attempt to minimise costs while simultaneously maximising customer service and this is reflected in location decisions. Christopher (1994) notes that location decisions are a fundamental factor of profitability in international logistics. The significance of cost factors is noted in a number of studies (Hoffman and Schniederjans, 1994; Jungthirapanich and Benjamin, 1995; Badri, 1996, 1999, Atthirawong and MacCarthy, 2001). This study has highlighted the relative importance of cost sub-factors and noted that their importance varies between different countries and industries. Although wage rates were ranked in the top ten of key sub-factors in this study, it was suggested by some of the panellists and has been noted by others (Slack et al., 2001) this may be significant only for low-value operations such as textiles and clothing. Other sub-factors such as the cost of acquiring land in some countries may dominate the decision process in some instances. Infrastructure: infrastructure is also of major concern in international location decisions. The intensive competition in today’s global business environment results in pressure to reduce the time to bring products to markets as well as demands by customers for higher levels of quality and improved delivery reliability. Infrastructure issues have, therefore, become crucial in international operations (Flaig, 1993). The existence, quality and reliability of modes of transportation, the quality and reliability of utilities and telecommunication systems have been highlighted in the study. Adequate modes of transportation are necessary to bring raw materials from suppliers to plants and to deliver products to markets as quickly and reliably as possible, enabling firms to reduce total cycle time effectively. Therefore, many firms seek to locate in countries where facilities and utilities are in good condition and are reliable. However, the importance of sub-factors may vary. For instance, telecommunication systems were noted as being important in some sectors by some of panellists, especially for high technology products, enabling swift transfer of information among various activities and more flexible links between parent company’s head offices with their subsidiaries and customers. Other studies such as Atthirawong and MacCarthy (2001) note that adequate utilities, especially water and electricity supplies, are key elements for many sectors. 813 Labour characteristic: location analysis is also driven by labour characteristics. The quality of the labour force is an increasingly critical issue and is found to be significant in many studies (e.g. Doner and Brimble, 1998; Atthirawong and MacCarthy, 2001), as it may affect productivity, quality, waste and rework. In deciding to shift production overseas, it is also necessary to investigate the availability of workers. In some cases, it may be possible to send skilled workers from a parent company but recruitment of local workers is usually necessary (Burnham, 1994). Not only must firms consider the worker availability, they must also consider the attitude and motivation of local workers as this will influence productivity. This study has also noted that availability of management resources and specific skills are increasingly important when considering the location of manufacturing activities. In practice, firms need to investigate local labour characteristics thoroughly for each location alternative before making international decisions (Krajewski and Ritzman, 1999). Government and political factors: this factor was ranked fourth of 13 major factors overall. There are only a few studies in international location decisions that address this factor or that attempt to capture it in location models as it is difficult to measure and analyse (Phatak, 1995). However, in practice, it can prove very important to the success of organisations. Sudden changes in a business environment may affect profit and other aspects of business. Chase and Aquilano (1995) agree that political risks in both the country of location and the host country should have a direct impact on a location decision. They further suggest that the consistency of government policies towards industrial development could also affect the growth of a business. It was also noted in this study that the attitude of government to inward investment is a major contribution to the development of business. Economic factor: economic factors such as tax incentives and tax structure, financial incentives, custom duties, inflation and interest rates have been receiving more emphasis in location choices and the study has highlighted the general importance of economic factors. However, surprisingly their sub-factors were not ranked highly. It was commented that the rankings of economic sub-factors are relevant only for some geographical areas. It was argued that an additional economic sub-factor – the strength of currency against the US dollar – should be ranked highly as the fluctuations in exchange rates of currencies could directly affect many international operations. Some companies such as Colgate have lost more than ten million dollars from foreign exchange transactions, whereas others such as Exxon have gained a large amount of money from such transactions (Phatak, 1995). Conclusions and managerial implications This study was conceived in order to investigate and identify critical factors in international location decisions. The study has provided a broad view on 814 international location decisions. A comprehensive set of location factors relevant in the decision making process have been identified. A ranking of factors and sub-factors based on average ratings have also been reported. The study deployed the Delphi approach to capture and consolidate expert knowledge and opinion. The approach provides a well-established methodology to obtain information from a group of individuals who have relevant knowledge and experience. It helps to clarify concepts and adds rich context-based knowledge. The findings reflect opinions and views on international location decisions generally. The factors identified, and their importance, has implications for management practice, for policy making by governments and other agencies and for academic research. The findings may be of benefit to firms by bringing more understanding and a broader view of what the important factors are in dealing with international location choices. The identified steps in making international location decisions may assist international firms in conducting, analysing and evaluating manufacturing location choices. The findings may provide guidelines for international firms to ensure that appropriate and relevant factors are taken into consideration in the early stages of the decision making process. The findings may also help policy makers in formulating manufacturing policies and may help relevant national and local government officers to improve their abilities and roles in assisting the location process and in attracting and meeting the requirements of foreign investors. As with other survey methods or any Delphi-type study, the findings reported here must be interpreted and generalised with care. The study provides broad and subjective views on factors affecting the international location process. The panel for instance was not chosen randomly. They were chosen based on their experience and knowledge regarding the topic being surveyed and on their willingness to participate. Delphi is primarily a qualitative knowledge elicitation approach that focuses on using an expert panel to arrive at a consensus of opinion. It is not designed for advanced statistical analysis and does not, in itself, show relationships or interactions between factors. The power of the Delphi approach is that it provides more understanding of complex problems than other survey techniques. The findings reported here should provide a useful basis for other studies seeking to improve understanding of factors affecting international location decisions. Further studies using other methodologies such as structured interviews and detailed case studies are advocated to take the subject forward. References Atthirawong, W. (2002), “A framework for international location decision making using the analytical hierarchy approach”, PhD thesis, University of Nottingham, Nottingham. 815 Atthirawong, W. and MacCarthy, B. (2000), “Factors affecting international location/allocation decisions: can we structure them?”, in Proceedings of the 5th International Manufacturing Research Symposium, pp. 1-8. Atthirawong, W. and MacCarthy, B. 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