For whom the bell tolls

MAIN PART

1. THE LIFE AND WORK OF ERNEST HEMINGWAY FOR WHOM THE BELL TOLLS, NOVEL BY ERNEST HEMINGWAY

The novel is set near Segovia, Spain, in 1937 and tells the story of American teacher Robert Jordan, who has joined the antifascist Loyalist army. Jordan has been sent to make contact with a guerrilla band and blow up a bridge to advance a Loyalist offensive. The action takes place during Jordan’s 72 hours at the guerrilla camp. During this period, he falls in love with María, who has been raped by fascist soldiers, and befriends the shrewd but cowardly guerrilla leader Pablo and his courageous wife, Pilar. Jordan manages to destroy the bridge; Pablo, Pilar, María, and two other guerrillas escape, but Jordan is injured. Proclaiming his love to María once more, he awaits the fascist troops and certain death.
The title is derived from Meditation 17 of John Donne’s Devotions upon Emergent Occasions. “No man is an island,” Donne observes, “entire of itself; every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main…. Any man’s death diminishes me, because I am involved in mankind, and therefore never send to know for whom the bell tolls; it tolls for thee.”¹
Ernest Hemingway wrote The Sun Also Rises and A Farewell to Arms, which were full of the existential disillusionment of the Lost Generation expatriates; For Whom the Bell Tolls, about the Spanish Civil War; and the Pulitzer Prize-winning the Old Man and the Sea.
Ernest Hemingway was born in a suburb of Chicago. He was educated in the public schools and began to write in high school, where he was active and outstanding. The parts of his boyhood that mattered most to him were summers spent with his family on Walloon Lake, near Petoskey, Michigan.
Having departed Cuba, his home for some 20 years, Ernest Hemingway settled in Ketchum, Idaho, in 1960 and temporarily resumed his work, but, anxiety-ridden and depressed, he was twice hospitalized at the Mayo Clinic. On July 2, 1961, he took his life with a shotgun at his house in Ketchum.
Ernest Hemingway, in full Ernest Miller Hemingway, (born July 21, 1899, Cicero [now in Oak Park], Illinois, U.S.—died July 2, 1961, Ketchum, Idaho), American novelist and short-story writer, awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1954. He was noted both for the intense masculinity of his writing and for his adventurous and widely publicized life. His succinct and lucid prose style exerted a powerful influence on American and British fiction in the 20th century.
The first son of Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, a doctor, and Grace Hall Hemingway, Ernest Miller Hemingway was born in a suburb of Chicago. He was educated in the public schools and began to write in high school, where he was active and outstanding, but the parts of his boyhood that mattered most were summers spent with his family on Walloon Lake in upper Michigan. On graduation from high school in 1917, impatient for a less-sheltered environment, he did not enter college but went to Kansas City, where he was employed as a reporter for the Star. He was repeatedly rejected for military service because of a defective eye, but he managed to enter World War I as an ambulance driver for the American Red Cross. On July 8, 1918, not yet 19 years old, he was injured on the Austro-Italian front at Fossalta di Piave. Decorated for heroism and hospitalized in Milan, he fell in love with a Red Cross nurse, Agnes von Kurowsky, who declined to marry him. These were experiences he was never to forget.²
After recuperating at home, Hemingway renewed his efforts at writing, for a while worked at odd jobs in Chicago, and sailed for France as a foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star. Advised and encouraged by other American writers in Paris—F. Scott Fitzgerald, Gertrude Stein, Ezra Pound—he began to see his nonjournalistic work appear in print there, and in 1925 his first important book, a collection of stories called In Our Time, was published in New York City; it was originally released in Paris in 1924.
In 1926 he published The Sun Also Rises, a novel with which he scored his first solid success. A pessimistic but sparkling book, it deals with a group of aimless expatriates in France and Spain—members of the postwar Lost Generation, a phrase that Hemingway scorned while making it famous. This work also introduced him to the limelight, which he both craved and resented for the rest of his life. Hemingway’s The Torrents of Spring, a parody of the American writer Sherwood Anderson’s book Dark Laughter, also appeared in 1926.³
The writing of books occupied Hemingway for most of the postwar years. He remained based in Paris, but he traveled widely for the skiing, bullfighting, fishing, and hunting that by then had become part of his life and formed the background for much of his writing. His position as a master of short fiction had been advanced by Men Without Women in 1927 and thoroughly established with the stories in Winner Take Nothing in 1933. Among his finest stories are “The Killers,” “The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber,” and “The Snows of Kilimanjaro.” At least in the public view, however, the novel A Farewell to Arms overshadowed such works. Reaching back to his experience as a young soldier in Italy, Hemingway developed a grim but lyrical novel of great power, fusing love story with war story. While serving with the Italian ambulance service during World War I, the American lieutenant Frederic Henry falls in love with the English nurse Catherine Barkley, who tends him during his recuperation after being wounded. She becomes pregnant by him, but he must return to his post. Henry deserts during the Italians’ disastrous retreat after the Battle of Caporetto, and the reunited couple flee Italy by crossing the border into Switzerland. There, however, Catherine and her baby die during childbirth, and Henry is left desolate at the loss of the great love of his life
Hemingway’s love of Spain and his passion for bullfighting resulted in Death in the Afternoon (1932), a learned study of a spectacle he saw more as tragic ceremony than as sport. Similarly, a safari he took in 1933–34 in the big-game region of Tanganyika resulted in Green Hills of Africa, an account of big-game hunting. Mostly for the fishing, he purchased a house in Key West, Florida, and bought his own fishing boat. A minor novel of 1937 called To Have and Have Not is about a Caribbean desperado and is set against a background of lower-class violence and upper-class decadence in Key West during the Great Depression.
By now Spain was in the midst of civil war. Still deeply attached to that country, Hemingway made four trips there, once more a correspondent. He raised money for the Republicans in their struggle against the Nationalists under General Francisco Franco, and he wrote a play called The Fifth Column (1938), which is set in besieged Madrid. As in many of his books, the protagonist of the play is based on the author. Following his last visit to the Spanish war, he purchased Finca Vigía (“Lookout Farm”), an unpretentious estate outside Havana, Cuba, and went to cover another war—the Japanese invasion of China.
The harvest of Hemingway’s considerable experience of Spain in war and peace was the novel For Whom the Bell Tolls⁴, a substantial and impressive work that some critics consider his finest novel, in preference to A Farewell to Arms. It was also the most successful of all his books as measured in sales. Set during the Spanish Civil War, it tells of Robert Jordan, an American volunteer who is sent to join a guerrilla band behind the Nationalist lines in the Guadarrama Mountains. Most of the novel concerns Jordan’s relations with the varied personalities of the band, including the girl Maria, with whom he falls in love. Through dialogue, flashbacks, and stories, Hemingway offers telling and vivid profiles of the Spanish character and unsparingly depicts the cruelty and inhumanity stirred up by the civil war. Jordan’s mission is to blow up a strategic bridge near Segovia in order to aid a coming Republican attack, which he realizes is doomed to fail. In an atmosphere of impending disaster, he blows up the bridge but is wounded and makes his retreating comrades leave him behind, where he prepares a last-minute resistance to his Nationalist pursuers.
All of his life Hemingway was fascinated by war—in A Farewell to Arms he focused on its pointlessness, in For Whom the Bell Tolls on the comradeship it creates—and, as World War II progressed, he made his way to London as a journalist. He flew several missions with the Royal Air Force and crossed the English Channel with American troops on D-Day (June 6, 1944). Attaching himself to the 22nd Regiment of the 4th Infantry Division, he saw a good deal of action in Normandy and in the Battle of the Bulge. He also participated in the liberation of Paris, and, although ostensibly a journalist, he impressed professional soldiers not only as a man of courage in battle but also as a real expert in military matters, guerrilla activities, and intelligence collection.⁵
For Whom the Bell Tolls, American adventure film, released in 1943, that was a romanticized adaptation of the 1940 novel of the same name by Ernest Hemingway. The film was a popular and critical success, earning nine Academy Award nominations and winning one for best supporting actress.
Hemingway handpicked Cooper and Bergman for the lead roles. Though the studio depoliticized most of the film’s content, rendering it more or less like a generic adventure story, it resonated with audiences when it was released in 1943, at the height of World War II. For Whom the Bell Tolls is still regarded as one of the best film adaptations of a Hemingway story. Its original 170-minute running time was later cut by more than 30 minutes, but restored versions of the film now include virtually all the missing footage.

2. HISTORICITY AS ACCEPTABLE CASUALTY OF WAR ERNEST HEMINGWAY’S FOR WHOM THE BELL TOLLS

If there is one thing Ernest Hemingway’s “For Whom the Bell Tolls” insist on, it is the solidarity of humanity against a common threat. The novel begins with a poem by 17th century Christian poet John Donne “No man is an Iland, intire of itself; every man is a peece of the Continent, a part of the maine…. And therefore, never send to know for whom the bell tolls. It tolls for thee”.⁶ With over 785,000 copies sold in the United States and another 100,000 copies sold in the United Kingdom by the end of 1943, For Whom the Bell Tolls not only bring forth the issue of The Spanish Civil War to the free world, it also promotes solidarity among mankind against the rise of fascism regardless of reader background. However, despite off From Whom the Bell Tolls’ commercial success and continued status as a postmodern classic, the novel is not without its critics when it comes to the issue of historicity and relevance to the modern reader. Harold Bloom states that among Ernest Hemingway’s many creations, only 15 of his short stories and the novel The Sun Also Rise transcends their time and exist as more than mere period pieces.⁷ Per Harold Bloom’s definition of “period piece”, “In a literary context, a period piece is not timeless in its aesthetic and intellectual value, but merely reflects a particular moment (or span) when an ideology or culture was dominant.” Therefore, under the context of the above definition, Bloom implies that in his opinion, For Whom the Bell Tolls’ aesthetic and intellectual value provides the modern reader with no insight into the human condition beyond that of The Spanish Civil War temporal space. Some critics such as Dwight Macdonald even attacks the novel’s historicity, accusing of Hemingway masquerading Stalinist propaganda as historical fiction.
Though dissecting the series of events faced by Robert Jordan in For Whom the Bell Tolls and fact checking them against historical records of the Spanish Civil War, this essay aims to dispute the historicity of the novel. Through an examination of the ethno-cultural makeup of the group the novel’s protagonist is embedded in, this essay suggests that Hemingway maybe presenting an unrealistic or idealised version of the Spanish society. Thereby this essay suggests the world constructed by Hemingway may not provide us with an accurate picture of the events and general sentiment during The Spanish Civil War. However, this essay also argues against
Harold Bloom’s classification of the novel as a mere period piece. This essay suggests that while the novel was set in the Spanish Civil War, the purveyance of elements such as solidarity against a common enemy, morality, vengeance, abeyance of the nature of truth in pursuit of victory enable this novel to transcend the time of The Spanish Civil War, thereby enabling the modern reader to reflect upon the plight that befalls their society regardless of the social-historical situation.
The novel is set in the Sierra de Guadarrama Mountain range along the centre of the Iberian Peninsula. For three days in May 1937, the protagonist Robert Jordan is embedded with a band of republican guerilla fighters. The communist has tasked Robert Jordan to demolish a bridge during a Republican offensive to prevent the Nationalists from retreating. Beginning from the setting of the novel itself it already proves to be problematic. Regarding the historicity of the novel’s setting, Castillo-Puche et al notes:
“There had been no guerrilla forces, either large groups or small isolated bands, operating in this sector during the war…. I had often questioned forest rangers, highway workers, peasants in little villages in the sierra, men who had fought on both sides during the war, and none of them could recall any situation even remotely similar to that in the novel…. Soldiers and officers of every rank had all agreed that there had been no such infiltration and sabotage by small bands of guerrillas”.⁸ While guerilla warfare did occur during The Spanish Civil War, it was often met with great opposition from the establishment. On 12 October 1936, Louis Fischer, a pro-communist American journalist for The Nation drafted a large-scale guerrilla warfare recommendation in a letter to Premier Francisco Largo Caballero. “I know some attempts have been made here. But this should be launched on a vast scale, and right now when the enemy is near”. Premier Largo Caballero rejected Fischer’s suggestion on grounds of insufficient cadres available to train up a guerrilla force and insufficient weapons and munitions to arm them. While Caballero’s explanation seems to be supported by the arms shortage situation described in George Orwell’s Homage to Catalonia, Whaley argues that the real reason behind Caballero’s rejection can be mainly attributed to Caballero’s gross misconception about the effectiveness of guerrilla warfare when supplies and manpower are limited.⁹ Regardless of the underlying reasons behind Caballero’s decision, historical records seem to suggest For Whom the Bell Tolls’ setting of irregulars operating behind fascists lines at Sierra de Guadarrama may not necessarily be historically accurate.
A bridge sabotage operation like what is depicted in the novel did occur during the Spanish Civil War but it was a professional military operation under the leadership of General “Walter” (Karol Świerczewski) the XIV International Brigade consisting of French and Belgian volunteers during the Battle of Jarama on February 11 1940. Nationalist cavalry under the leadership of Barrón pursued the XIV International Brigade across the Arganda Bridge. While Republican forces did lay demolition charges under the Arganda Bridge to prevent the fascists from crossing, the demolition charges failed to destroy the Arganda bridge. Ultimately leading to Republican’s force being pushed back from the area and the Nationalists establishing a foothold on the opposite bridgehead, inflicting heavy casualties to both sides.
The Arganda Bridge served as a key supply route into Madrid, the battle fought there proved to be pivotal to the outcome of the war. Apoorva Bharadwaj claims that after the battle, Hemingway interviewed many of the survivors and visited the bridge in person. The Battle of Jarama serves as the basis of the bridge that Robert Jordan is tasked with demolishing in the novel. However, with the French and Belgian volunteers replaced by a cast of local Spaniards, the novel inadvertently diminishes the sacrifices made by the International Brigade during the battle.
The ethno-cultural makeup of the guerrilla fighters depicted in For Whom the Bell Tolls also proves to be suspect. Pablo, the former leader of the group is a horse merchant; Pilar - Pablo’s gypsy wife used to be a prostitute before becoming the acting leader following Robert Jordan’s arrival; Anselmo, Andres, Agustin are Castilian peasants under Pablo and Pilar’s command. In the novel Hemingway depicts them as anti-fascists selflessly devoted to the defense of democracy, with the sectarianism of national politics cast aside temporarily under the threat of a common enemy. Regarding the likelihood of such an arrangement arising spontaneously, Castillo-Puche comments “it is highly unlikely Castilian peasants would accept the leadership of a Gypsy and a horse merchant”. If readers were to accept For Whom the Bell Tolls as a historical record of the events that unfolded during the Spanish Civil War, it might provide them with an understated impression of social divisiveness that persisted throughout the Spanish Civil War. Arturo Barea even goes as far as to label the novel as “deeply untruthful”.¹⁰
One of the most savage and brutal scenes depicted in the novel is perhaps Pilar’s account of a massacre of priests and fascists sympathizers in the Spanish village of Avila. In the chapter, Hemingway drew parallel between the massacre orchestrated by Pablo and the Spanish tradition of “corrida de toros” with the bulls replaced by the fascists. The brutality that is depicted muddles the question of morality superiority and paints a picture of moral greyness of which horrors of war were perpetrated by both sides and there exists no neat ethical divide. While the scene is certainly effective in its delivery, the question of historicity arises again. Arturo Barea comments that the scale of village massacres portrayed by Hemingway is greatly exaggerated, assassination and removal of fascists would have been much more discreet. While there were certainly records of massacres that occurred during the Spanish Civil War, it did not occur in Avila, instead it occurred during the Battle of Badajoz, otherwise known as the Massacre of Badajoz on August 1936 in the Andalusia region. The victims of the massacre are not those who are loyal to Franco, nor were they of the clerical class, instead 4000 Republican civilians and military supporters were massacred by the fascists following the fall of the city on August 14 1936. On the same day following the fall of the city, General Yagüe of the Second Spanish Republic ordered all prisoners (mostly civilians), including women and children to be moved to Plaza de Toros to be publicly executed. On August 18, Le Populaire published:¹¹
It is without question that the Nationalists carried out great atrocities and war crimes against the Republicans during the Spanish Civil War. In reverse however there exists little reliable record of massacres against Nationalist sympathizers like what is depicted in the novel. As a matter of fact, Hemingway’s usage of “corrida de toros” to describe the massacre that took place during in the novel seems to have lend inspiration from the massacre that befall Nationalist civilians. Castillo-Puche notes “there were no such cases of mass slaughter in towns in Segovia. Nor were there any around Avila.” Therefore, under the historical context of The Spanish Civil War, Hemingway’s depiction paints a deeply untruthful picture of the brutality that befalls Republican civilians, the victim/perpetrator role reversal might even be read as offensive to the survivors of the Massacre of Badajoz.

3. HEMINGWAY’S FOR WHOM THE BELL TOLLS: REBELLION AND THE MEANING OF POLITICS IN THE SPANISH CIVIL WAR

Scholars identify For Whom the Bell Tolls as “Hemingway’s most overtly political novel”, or, in the words of Meyers, it is “the greatest political novel in American literature.” First published in 1940, it is set during the Spanish civil war. Hemingway himself was an active participant in the war, and MacDonald states that Hemingway takes a “defi nite political attitude” towards the war.¹² Yet in sharply contrasting analysis, Cooper notes that several critics assert that the novel is not political, or misses the main issues in the war, because it refrains from propagandizing. The discrepancy between these two interpretations of the work as a political novel hinge on the defi nition of “political” or politics. Within a political science framework, if “political” tends to focus on a specifi c set of political institutions or specifi c party politics, the novel appears less political because in the book, neither Hemingway nor his protagonist profess support for a certain type of democratic institutions or political parties. In terms of ideology, the novel clearly adopts an anti-Fascist stance, yet it reveals no obvious preference for the type of society that would be desirable if the Republican Loyalists won the war. The protagonist Robert Jordan maintains a commitment to the “Republic” in terms of an electoral, democratic republic rather than specifying concrete institutions that might reveal attachment to a more transparent and coherent ideology. Hemingway portrays support for the Republican cause, but surprisingly, he also exposes the brutality on the part of the Republican fi ghters. Similarly, the novel does not present uncritical and enthusiastic support for the Communist leaders of the Republican war effort. Thus, rather than offering support for a specifi c type of polity, or defending a specifi c political ideology, the political aspect of the novel is more nuanced. It describes the Republican struggle during the war and profoundly depicts the impact of politics in defi ning people’s lives. Watson (1992b, 103) observes that “For Whom the Bell Tolls may not be a novel about the politics of the Spanish Civil War, but the politics
of that war permeate the novel at almost every level of thought and action.” While our social science lens focuses attention on institutions and institutional change through well-defi ned interests and more formal organizations, For Whom the Bell Tolls probes the more intimate and individualistic defi ning process of those interests. In particular, the novel focuses our attention on the meaning of rebellion as a political act of self-realization, best exemplifi ed in the actions of the novel’s rebel protagonist, Robert Jordan.
Political theories about the causes of revolution include macro and micro level explanations. At the macro level, structural conditions and ideologies are critical factors in understanding the emergence of rebellion and revolution. Prevailing ideologies can drive collective mobilization. Weber and Tawney discussed the role of religious reformation in transforming a society’s attitudes towards personal property and material acquisition. In recent decades, some revolutionary activity in the Middle East has been linked with certain adherents to the Muslim religion and with particular Islamic sects. Individual beliefs that one is risking one’s life for a supernatural power may give strength to a revolutionary movement. Many revolutionary movements cultivated nationalism to overthrow foreign political and economic domination. The American Revolution can be seen in this context, as can the twentieth-century revolutions against colonialism. In each case, basic changes in the political system follow as a result of ideologies including those rooted in religion, equality, and liberty.
To Have and Have Not centers on the life of Harry Morgan. Morgan’s life and death is defi ned by his participation in the informal economy of smuggling, and through his travel between Miami and Havana, we capture a stark analysis of the political and economic systems of capitalism juxtaposed against Communist revolutionaries. As much as we are offered some gratuitous observations about the differences, the penetrating insights come from weaving stories that ultimately settle upon a picture of much more similarity. Hemingway dwells on power and myth as the underlying thread of his critique of political systems more generally. The contribution of this particular novel is a meditation on the meaning of political activity and participation given the context of all political systems plagued by these broader realities of power and myth. Regardless of ideology, democratic capitalism or Communism, power and myth dominate both systems and create an individual sense of meaninglessness around political activities and goals.
It seems suspicious that San Juan would concede that "parallels involving characterization, setting, arrangement of incidents" (xxxiv) can be found and yet still remain dismissive about the level of influence For Whom exerts. San Juan seems to suggest that because Bulosan did not correspond about Hemingway, no evidence exists to link Hemingway to The Cry. However, San Juan supplies many reasons Bulosan may have been interested in Hemingway in his introduction, and evidence of Hemingway's prose is littered across The Cry. San Juan's hasty refutation of Hemingway is ironic when examined in the context of Bulosan's history of denying source material. Taruc's Born of the People is similar to The Cry in many ways and probably provided significant details and necessary history, but Taruc's text is autobiographical Marxist propaganda; its plot structure makes it a problematic model for a jingoistic novel that plays out like a World War Two-era action film. Enough distinctive similarities exist between The Cry and For Whom, in fact, to justify a reexamination of Bulosan's controversial history of plagiarism. But Taruc's influence complicates an easy reading of the novel which might suggest Bulosan was a simple plagiarist. Bulosan's hybrid appropriation of Taruc and Hemingway, particularly the Hemingway Code hero, transforms The Cry and the Dedication from an otherwise mediocre unfinished novel into a far more subversive postcolonial text. While outlining Bulosan's resistance to Hemingway and his vision of US-American anti-fascism, my paper details how Bulosan and San Juan ironically perform a similar antithetical promotion of Filipino determinacy and identity.¹³
The three texts-The Cry and the Dedication, For Whom the Bell Tolls, and Born of the People--follow the lives of guerillas and delineate contrasting themes of perseverance and dedication. Bulosan's The Cry chronicles a group of guerillas from the late 1940's-era Philippines as they cross an island to receive money from a US-American sympathetic to their cause. The guerillas stop in their respective hometowns on the way in order to organize the local peasants and kill important members of their opposition. The novel is unfinished (it was not published in Bulosan's lifetime), and it ends abruptly leaving the protagonists trapped under impossible circumstances before the completion of their ultimate goal. Bulosan's contributions to US-American literature make him valuable to scholars of twentieth-century US-American writing--his collections of non-fiction essays and short stories were best sellers in the 1930s and 1940s--and essential reading to scholars interested in first-generation Asian-American authors. Bulosan intended The Cry as one cycle of an ambitious four-part history of the Philippines (San Juan Jr. ix), not unlike Reinaldo Arenas's five-part novelistic history of Cuba.
For Whom the Bell Tolls follows a group of guerillas in the Spanish Civil War of the 1930s and '40s. Hemingway covered the war while embedded as a journalist with a group of guerillas, and the book is widely considered one of Hemingway's most important novels. Taruc's Born of the People is a nonfiction memoir which covers his life from birth in 1913 to 1949 when he wrote the text, but it focuses on his time as a principal leader of the Phillipines Huk Rebellion the setting for The Cry. Taruc died in 2005. Bulosan appears to have extracted many details from Taruc's memoir, but his structure closely follows Hemingway's and in so doing Bulosan creates a valuable piece of geopolitical cultural hybridity.
San Juan writes that "The characters of Old Bio and Hassim," the two most dominant characters from The Cry, share significant similarities with "the old man [Anselmo] and the hero [Robert Jordan]" (xxxiv) from Hemingway's for Whom. Just as Hassim, a young revolutionary, is brought in to command a group of seasoned guerillas, so is the young Robert Jordan. Both leaders fight valiantly and inflict significant casualties upon their enemies before ultimately failing in some significant way. Both texts deal with communist guerillas fighting a civil war against what they would describe as fascist counterparts and overwhelming odds. In both texts the guerillas meet their young leader in a cave; the main characters have painful pasts that they refuse to discuss (but do under duress). They even share the same trope of having an older alcoholic continually forced to beg for a diminishing amount of alcohol from a character with less social power. Bulosan either poorly disguised his source material, or clearly meant for audiences to think of For Whom when they read The Cry. In fact, the best way to describe The Cry and the Dedication is to refer to it as a re-envisioned Filipino version of For Whom the Bell Tolls.¹⁴
Although Hassim and Old Bio reflect many of the actions and personality traits of Robert Jordan and Anselmo, they demonstrate the breadth and depth of their similarities most effectively in their mimicking of the Hemingway's code hero. Philip Young was the first critic to suggest the term code hero which "though controversial, [has] been widely accepted and form[s] the basis of critical interpretation of Hemingway's fiction". According to this reading, nearly all of Hemingway's narrators and/or main protagonists exemplified a host of the same characteristics. Sheldon Norman Grebstein explains that "Hemingway defined the Code Hero as a "man who lives correctly, following the ideals of honor, courage, and endurance in a world that is sometimes chaotic, often stressful, and always painful".

4. INFLUENCES OF ERNEST HEMINGWAY'S NOVEL "FOR WHOM THE BELL TOLLS" ON PETRO MARKO'S NOVEL "HASTA LA VISTA"

Hemingway uses the Spanish Civil War as an opportunity and an enormous experience to make his discoveries about human nature. He does not make a distinction between two types of killings: the martyrs, ours, on the one hand and the others, the enemies, on the other hand, unlike Petro Marko, who even in the epigraph of his novel makes this distinction and announces this black and white, straightforward and explicit attitude.
The hero of P. Marko’s novel Hasta la Vista, Gori Gjinleka is a static character, who remains a character on a dead end, not fully developed. He volunteered to participate in the Spanish Civil War in an event of continental importance, though he lacked a strong, all-encompassing knowledge and experience about the world. The world for him consisted of only communist, proletarians-brothers and bourgeoisie enemies. He does not develop psychologically and mentally; he only gives himself up to the international-communist utopia and surrenders himself to the leaders of the revolutionary movement. The character Gjinleka has come to symbolize the essential feature of the crowds, the sincere submission to superiors, the reverence for the cult of the leader-commander and the blind worship of his political group. The cult of Professor Tomorri and the cult of communist commissars in general is a model of that submissive idolatry and fascination of the masses with the high communist leadership that would culminate in Albania years after Hasta la Vista was written. Indoctrination, dogmatism and philosophical and political shallowness are not attributes of the conscious aesthetic characterization of the hero by the author, but are traits of self-imposed restrictions of the author, certainly incited and induced by editorial pressure, self-censorship and pre- conceived practices in force back then in Albania.
The above-mentioned inequalities are a reflection of the cultural and literary formation of the two authors, but, at the same time they are a consequence of the discrepancies between the respective cultural-political environments. For Hemingway we can be satisfied with the following assessment of one of his harshest critics, Paul Johnson:
“At first glance Ernest Hemingway is not easily recognized as an intellectual at all. On closer inspection he is not only seen to exhibit all the chief characteristics of the intellectual but to possess them to an unusual degree, and in a specifically American combination. He was, moreover, a writer of profound originality. He transformed the way in which his fellow Americans, and people throughout the English-speaking world, expressed themselves. He created a new, personal, secular, and highly contemporary ethical style, which was intensely American in origin, but translated itself easily into many cultures. He fused a number of American attitudes together and made himself their archetypal personification, so that he came to embody America at a certain epoch rather as Voltaire embodied France in the 1750’s or Byron England in the 1820’s”.¹⁵
Innate talent, stylistic perfectionism and a life filled with extraordinary experiences are what distinguish Hemingway. But we would add that he was an extraordinary reader. From an early age he had read and analysed all the masterpieces of literature, arts and philosophy that had been created and written in his country, in Europe and in Russia. However, although he was part of this
great tradition, Hemingway decided not to write based on tradition but against it, employing radically innovative, original and legible style. In addition, he had a huge experience which he recounted in his novels, including Hasta la Vista.
On the other hand, in P. Marko’s case it is his life experience until 1944 that had a huge effect on his writings because after that his familiarization, enrichment with western culture and natural intellectual developments becomes really impossible. Hence, because of the communist regime in Albania, his experience as a participant and witness of great events, instead of being an advantage and a raw material for major literary works, turns into restraint, adversity and a strong motive of silence and concealment of his real outlook, convictions and opinions. The first successful and promising P. Marko’s literary works in literature are not welcomed but instead become a cause of his persecution and all-round violence. The opposite is true of Hemingway. This is because in Hemingway’s literary beginnings Ezra Pound upon expressing his conviction that Hemingway writes brilliantly and is the most stylistically talented prose writer, strongly influenced and convinced Ford Maddox Ford to open him the path for a new literary career. Hemingway shows his gratitude to Ezra Pound by rescuing him years later from the death penalty.
Looking at the concrete circumstances where and how E. Hemingway and P. Marko lived and worked, we can notice the inequalities between the two authors, through their works, as a result of the respective literatures, cultures and traditions. Cultural tradition could not offer more to the talented P. Marko because for the cultural horizon of communist Albania at that time, the publication and presence in the library of a novel like For Whom the Bell Tolls was considered unnecessary and undesirable. Even in the decades that followed, Hemingway’s and novels of other foreign authors were censured, banned and some of them were even legally punishable. Moreover, it is worthwhile to point out that in fact as a complete book Hemingway's novel in question reached the Albanian reader only by 2002.¹⁶
On some similarities between the two novels. Whenever a researcher is given the opportunity to compare a literary work with another, regardless of point of view he approaches, he will unavoidably compare various elements of those works. In this case, the two important novels, one of the American literatures For Whom the Bell Tolls by Ernest Hemingway and the other one Hasta la Vista by Petro Marko, which belongs to Albanian literature, have similarities and differences and other common and special elements.
In P. Marko's novels, discourse is a motivating element, which is sometimes personal and emotional with very diverse metaphorical language. All Marko's works are interconnected and thus all his books constitute a sort of integral system, which narrate or display similar issues and elements from different perspectives. They communicate with each other, connect with ideological, thematic and discursive bridges and they contain more or less similar characters, changing only their names, events, etc. He structures the text on the principle of thematic code, each end becoming a new beginning. Thus, the themes he explores are personal, national and sometimes universal. Hemingway’s works on the other hand are structured in an ironic and sarcastic way, with short, indirect sentences, sometimes with idiomatic discourse, ironizing the futility of war, death, suicide and anxiety.
Authors of both novels through their original ideas reveal the multiple importance of the Spanish Civil War. Through their works they remembered, praised and admired the solidarity of many fighters and soldiers of different countries who gave their contribution by being near those who needed support and help to fight against a world invader, against the Nazi-Fascists. The first, Hemingway, through his novel, tried to realize the initiative and support all his compatriots, during the time of the terrible war, who were ready and willing to sacrifice themselves for the good of humanity, only to come to the aid of those in need and to respond to the destructive fascism. So, the very idea of the author realized in the work moralizes the heroic gesture of the participating characters and through them reflects all the national support and backing of his entire country to the cause of this war. The initiative of many writers who have written various literary works about the Spanish Civil War, especially Ernest Hemingway’s initiative, has influenced the prominent Albanian writer Petro Marko to do the same. Namely, he highly appreciates this initiative, this valuable work, which becomes a push, a motivation and a model for him to dedicate a literary work to all Albanian volunteers who took part in the Spanish Civil War.
Since the themes of both novels deal with war, the reader goes through and experiences sensitive situations and moments, both emotional and spiritual, especially in certain instances. In both novels, in addition to the theme of war the theme of love is also explored. This way, the lives and love affairs of the protagonists are described with sensitivity and emotionality, which makes them feel motivated and it gives them courage and strength to accomplish tasks and mission they have set for themselves. In E. Hemingway’s for Whom the Bell Tolls Robert Jordan falls in love with Maria, while Gori Gjinleka in P. Marko’s Hasta la Vista falls in love with Anita Gonzales. Both Maria and Anita are witnesses and survivors of the sad and tragic events of the war. While Anita escapes as the only survivor of her entire family, Maria is a victim because she is captured as a prisoner of war, thus their destinies intersect at one point as they both have a bitter fate.¹⁷
The theme of love is explored by both writers but in a different way. If in Hemingway’s novel love appears and develops gradually and is ever-present, in Petro Marko’s novel it has another temporal and spatial dimension. That is, love in P. Marko’s Hasta la Vista emerges by chance but is nurtured by the sincerity of the past and the fidelity of the future. Gori's love for Anita, aspires to be longer lasting. It is more idealistic and contains a purpose behind it, which is not that evident in Robert Jordan's relationship with Maria. Hence, to his last love, Maria, he was not loyal in the physical sense, because Robert had previously had relationships and affairs with women, but in the spiritual sense, because he had felt with Maria the real pleasure of loving someone.

5. CHARACTERS, HEROES, GUERRILLAS AND THEIR DILEMMAS IN E. HEMINGWAY’S "FOR WHOM THE BELL TOLLS" AND P. MARKO’S "HASTA LA VISTA"

In both novels the character modelling stands out, including the protagonists, who were based on real people with the only difference that Marko models the protagonist, Gori, completely on himself while Hemingway does not. As an illustration, in Hemingway's novel, researcher Robert Martin (1987) has identified Robert Merriman, an American volunteer with the rank of Major in the Abraham Lincoln Battalion of the International Brigades, as a model for the novel's protagonist, Robert Jordan, and the same goes for Maria, Pillar, El Sordo who are modelled on real people. Also, according to Jerzy Krzyzanowski (1962, pp. 69-74), Golz was based on Karol Swierczewski, a Polish colonel in Russian service (Martin, 1987, pp. 219-225).
The approach to the characters in Hemingway’s novel, whose number is not so small, is facilitated by the fact that they, in terms of dynamic development, are categorized in the first and second group characters. The characters of the first group are the ones of the mountain events, especially the characters related to Pablo's guerrilla group. The characters of the course of other events, respectively the actions in Madrid and at the front or elsewhere, belong to the characters of the second group. It goes without saying that the most elaborate and characteristic character of the first group is Robert Jordan. He is a man of action. He enters a dangerous mission with joy. Like Hemingway's other characters and heroes and in keeping with Hemingway’s code hero, he seems to realize that dying with honour is even more important than living well.
However, unlike other Hemingway characters, R. Jordan believes in an ideal, a cause and an ideology (Cooperman, 1964, p. 98). The cause he has come to fight for is the "government of the people" in Spain. R. Jordan's liberal political views had motivated him to leave the University of Montana, where he taught Spanish in order to fight against the enemies of the Spanish Republicans. While most liberal intellectuals showed a willingness only to denounce in words the rise of fascism in Spain, R. Jordan actively defends his political views.
On the whole, R. Jordan is a dynamic character, smart, inventive, courageous and determined. He had so much self-confidence and ingenuity that he could easily cope with even very complex situations. It was these qualities that helped him survive in the assigned role of explosive expert and partisan engaged behind enemy lines. He was ready to accomplish his mission, although before the action he had begun to have some doubts even for his ideals that had brought him to Spain. He was gripped by various contradictory concerns and ideas and unexpected dilemmas. For R. Jordan, commitment to ideology was important at the beginning, but not at the end of his mission. He realized that the cause he was fighting for had become less interesting and that perhaps any such cause would sooner or later be weakened. He was transformed from a believer and idealist into abstract ideas into a believer in the importance of the real life. Love with Maria brought him joy, happiness and optimism for some time, but also pain and regret because of the necessary separation from her, due to his mission and his bad luck. His affair and relationship with Marie served him "as a means" to carry out his mission. His relationship with Maria helps him understand the world from which he had come and to reconsider his previous worldviews and his previous way of life. In the end, R. Jordan’s horse was shot by enemy bullets, so the horse fell on him, breaking one of his legs. However, he decides to fight as he sought to protect his comrades and to enable them to retreat to a safer area. It was obvious that there was no other way out and all guerrillas had to move on, except Maria, who did not want to be separated from R. Jordan. However, Maria too, in a way is forced to part with him after Pillar and Pablo beg her and persuade her to leave. The wounded R. Jordan, does his best not to lose consciousness and to kill as many enemies as possible. He remains in combat position with a machine gun, fighting against the enemy and enabling comrades and Maria to escape. So in the end, he is killed while defending his comrades (Auer, 1986, p.5).
The character of Pablo is also a dynamic character. He is the leader of the guerrilla group, is quite interesting, not only because he often gets drunk and undermines the role of the commander, but also because his behaviour is full of unexpected contradictions (Waldhorn, 1973). Once he was a completely different Pablo, who like R. Jordan believed in the cause of the Republic. However, unlike
R. Jordan, Pablo was able to carry out ruthless actions and acts. Now, he is a disillusioned guerrilla leader. He no longer believes in the cause for which he fought and prefers to survive, roam and hide in the mountains, without helping the war at all. Such behaviour cannot only turn him into a saboteur of war actions, but also a harmful and dangerous person. Thus, Pablo sometimes appears as a real warrior and sometimes as a completely different Pablo, who also confused R. Jordan. Most likely, all these weaknesses are caused by his excessive drinking, fatigue, giving up the life of comfort and perhaps even by the remorse of conscious for the crimes he had committed against the enemies.
In addition to Pablo, one of the characters with a considerable role is Pablo's girlfriend, Pillar, the real leader of the guerrilla group, although the role of commander at the beginning of the novel was played by Pablo. She is vigilant, aware and fearless in her duty and has special respect for R. Jordan, as a guerrilla warfare expert, but has no respect for defectors, traitors and cowards. Although, female from a rural patriarchal family, she has a special role and contribution in guerrilla warfare and is an excellent fighter. She can carry any kind of weapon like men, she knows how to use them, she uses the machine gun skilfully and she is the commander of the guerrilla fighters. She is rude and determined both in speech and in action. She also hates, underestimates and insults cowards. Although, as a woman she was not extremely beautiful, she had a noble spirit and love experiences with other men in the past. She gets along very well with Maria and feels a strange love for her. She likes the sincere love between R. Jordan and Maria. With her candid and manly character, she insults Pablo, when he returns repentant of his defection, then forgives him and loves him as before. Unlike Pablo, Pillar emphasizes that she is a loyal and true warrior of the Spanish Republic. On this occasion, she is like R. Jordan, who has the same confidence in the Republican movement. Pillar, who is wise and has a generous spirit, knows how to read the fate of people and impose her respect on men. Upon looking at R. Jordan's palm, she sadly announced his death.
Maria is a static character; she is a young Spanish woman who was rescued by Pablo's group when she stopped and shot at the enemy train. Since then, she was part of the guerrilla group. Maria has its importance in the novel because it is the main cause of the development of R. Jordan's character. She as a heroine (character) does not transform much. From the first meeting with R. Jordan, she fascinates him. She desperately needs a man who would take care of her and treat her with respect, courtesy, understanding, gentleness and sophistication. She is traumatized, so she still worries about the anxiety of the past or the brutal rape by the nationalist soldiers of the enemy. Pillar, who has a deep friendship with her, striving for her healing and comfort, has convinced her of the philosophy according to which everything Maria has done against her will in the past has not happened or it does not matter. Realizing that R. Jordan is also a gentle, noble and kind man, Maria showed an unreserved faith and love, almost adoring him. In their unique and happy love, the loving couple experiences the happiest moments of life.
The characters of other guerrillas are mainly described through their main features. Thus, Anselmo is a "Christian" hunter, who is a simple and sincere character. As the oldest of the guerrillas, he is sensitive, gentle, kind-hearted, who even considers the enemy soldier a man like himself. Therefore, every kind of murder causes him some kind of pain, because he is a religious man. Rafael is an annoying, insecure and irresponsible guy, who considers his duties towards the war as a game. El Sordo is a leader of the neighbouring guerrilla group, who is brave, believes in the cause and is devoted to the Republic. However, he is also realistic because he does not harbour illusions about the success of Republicans. Although it is clear that the cause for which he will die, will fail, he continues to fight to the very end.
Since both novels were written by the same idea and motive, then no doubt that the features of the characters of these novels are similar in certain aspects and respects by holding the same attitudes, ideas and visions about the war mission against the enemy.
In For Whom the Bell Tolls Robert Jordan as the protagonist of the main events, appears as a missionary, who together with other protagonists has the goal of blowing up an enemy bridge. On the other hand, the protagonist of the novel Hasta la Vista, Gori Gjinleka, is also a warrior. Gjinleka is also a missionary who fights for the same goals and ideas in that terrible war, but who operates in a wider circle, and thus his fellow soldiers are more at the center of attention during certain dramatic events and scenes in the war.
Andrea, another character in P. Marko’s novel Hasta la Vista is a young anti-fascist, patriot and idealist fighting for the future of his homeland and all the countries involved in the war. He is above all a cosmopolitan. Because of his resistance and fight against enemies, he is caught and sent before a foreign judge in his hometown. He has been accused of violating the integrity of the state! However, he has an interesting and meaningful answer to the accusations against him:
“I am involved in politics, thus I am accused because of my political convictions and activities... I want you to state here the justice of which country do you represent and defend: the one of Italian state or Albanian state ...After the translator finished, the prosecutor, reacted angrily: - Honourable Judge. We are dealing with an anarchist ... a sophisticated one ... and hence should not be allowed to violate the principles of our justice. Nevertheless, the Presiding Judge asked him to sit down. Then the prosecutor became even more agitated and outraged”.

CONCLUSION

When there is genuine contact and interaction between writers, there is a direct influence between two literatures that extends beyond the borders of a country and a language. A literary influence cannot exist unless an author has read another writer's 'original' text or has had direct interaction with him or her. However, proving this relationship, which is based on a clear-cut causation, between nationally distinct writers is difficult, if not impossible especially when some writers do not mention (deliberately or unintentionally) their debt, if any, to certain foreign writers or works. However, in this case, the Albanian writer, Petro Marko, was opened, candid and transparent enough to admit that he not only had direct contacts with Ernest Hemingway but that in writing his novel Hasta la Vista he was directly influenced by Ernest Hemingway’s novel For Whom the Bell Tolls. Both authors, Ernest Hemingway and Petro Marko, wrote novels on the same world historical event, the Spanish Civil War. These novels have undoubtedly similarities and differences.
It is clear that when it comes to similarities, both Petro Marko and Ernest Hemingway, endeavoured to connect their literary works to the world historical event, the Spanish Civil War, because they both participated in this event. Both novels E. Hemingway’s for Whom the Bell Tolls and P. Marko’s Hasta la Vista were written for the same purpose, to represent and admire the struggle of various heroes who participated in the Spanish War. Through their works they remembered, praised and admired the solidarity of many fighters and soldiers of different countries who gave their contribution by being near those who needed support and help to fight against a world invader, against the Nazi-Fascists. The development of the theme of Spanish War by both writers is realized through the similar narrative, namely the description of events and situations in the development of battles is given in detail by both writers. In addition to war as the main theme both authors have simultaneously developed the theme of love. Moreover, in these two novels we have images that are almost completely similar to each other, especially when it comes to the atrocities of the phalanges against the defenceless population. In both novels, bridge is the main common motif and symbol of hope. The adoption of orphans is another motif which is quite similar in both novels. Since both novels were written by the same idea and motif, then no doubt that the features of the characters of these novels are similar in certain aspects and respects because they hold the same attitudes, ideas and visions about the war mission against the enemy, etc.
Differences between the two authors include their socio-cultural contexts, literary traditions and periods and the languages in which both authors wrote their novels. There are also differences when it comes to writing their novels because both authors used different methods and during their creative process, they created original novels, through an artistic process with genuine systems of aesthetic and ethical values. Petro Marko and Ernest Hemingway also had divergent creative and ideological approaches in exploring themes, motifs and conflicts in their novels. Much of this is due to the American literary, historical and political great tradition, something that the Albanian tradition cannot claim due to various upheavals throughout its history. Authors of both novels employed original ideas to reveal the multiple importance of the Spanish Civil War. Another difference has to do with time, within which the events of these two novels take place.
We hope that this paper on the influence of Ernest Hemingway's novel For Whom the Bell Tolls on Petro Marko’s novel Hasta la Vista will contribute to the deepening of Albanian and American literary and cultural ties and relations, to the better knowledge, dissemination, reading and recognition of Hemingway’s work in Albanian literature and culture and to the incitement of other scholars to embark on conducting other researches on Ernest Hemingway’s influence in Albanian literature and culture.

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