Grammatical peculiarities of toponyms in the english and uzbek languages

1.2. Specific features of toponyms
In order to consider toponyms as a linguistic phenomenon, it is necessary to define the concept of toponym, to conduct a typological study of toponyms, to study the problems of toponymy, and to determine which languages are the sources of toponyms in Great Britain.
• Concept of toponym
It is known that the branch of linguistics that studies the specific names of all species, their development and usage laws is called onomastics. First of all, it is a linguistic science. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account the historical, geographical, cultural, sociological and literary components that help to understand the essence of the toponym in order to determine the specific characteristics of the named objects and the traditions associated with their names. Any geographical name has or has a certain content, and in some cases it is lost. The naming process is a process that has its own national and linguistic features of folk art.
Within onomastics, a separate science - toponymy - can be distinguished. Toponymics is the study of proper names, their origin, development, current status, spelling and pronunciation of geographical objects. A set of toponyms of a specific area is called toponymy.
A toponym is usually understood as a specific name denoting the name of a geographical object. In linguistics, this concept is studied from different angles: firstly, as an element of a certain toponymic system, to other toponyms (VA Malysheva, OT Molchanova, IN Timoshchuk, etc.), secondly, secondly, in the language system. as a whole, in relation to other language units. SIOzhegov defines a toponym as a specific name of a separate geographical place (settlement, river, land, etc.). According to the Oxford dictionary, a toponym is "the name of a specific geographical object".
However, to analyze toponyms, it is not enough to know the definition of the toponym, so it is necessary to consider their typological classification.
• Typology of toponyms
In modern linguistics, there are two classifications of toponyms:
a) by types of specified geographical objects;
b) by structure.
According to the first classification, the following types of toponyms are distinguished: hydronyms, oronyms, oikonyms, urbanonyms, macrotoponyms, microtoponyms and anthropotoponyms.
Hydronyms are the names of water bodies (rivers, lakes, seas, bays, straits, canals, etc.) and have a very high linguistic-historical value, because the names of water bodies have been used for centuries and thousands of years. is preserved and does not change much. . Thanks to the analysis of hydronyms, scientists can observe the ethnic and migration processes in the neighboring area, the settlement routes and migration routes of peoples, determine the connections and structural connections between different ethnic groups, and the historical change of one ethnic group. the second is to recreate the geographical conditions of the area, historical events, ethnolinguistic past, and present the ethnocultural background. Steadily preserved in hydronyms, archaisms and dialectisms, they often go back to the substrate languages of the peoples who lived in the area[16.42].
past
The next type - oronyms (from Greek oros - mountain) means the names of mountains (Lymuos).
In another group called oikonyms (from Greek oikos - abode, abode), the names of small settlements are distinguished. These include villages (decoros).
Urbanonyms denoting the names of objects within the city (Latin urbanus - city) are divided into several types: godonyms (Greek hodos - road, path, street, channel) - street names, agoronyms (Greek agora - square) - the names of quadrilaterals (Lanéia Sthantigmanos) and dromonyms (Greek dromos - running, movement, road) - the names of communication paths.
Macrotoponyms (from Greek makros - large) are proper names denoting the names of large geographical objects. First of all, these are the names of countries or historical regions, provinces (Sōia). Macrotoponyms are usually associated with ethnonyms. The name of the country can be derived from the ethnonym, and vice versa, the ethnonym can be derived from the name of the country.
Names of uninhabited small objects or microtoponyms (from Greek micros - small) refer to physical-geographical or urban (meadows, fields, groves, streets, fields, land, hayfields, pastures, marshes, cut fields, burned areas ) is included. , pastures, wells, key, pool, threshold, etc.) objects. Usually they are known only to a limited circle of people living in a certain area.
Often the names of geographical objects are derived from personal names, and in this case they are called anthropotoponyms (from the Greek anthropos - person). For example, the names of cities: thkhana, Aleľāndisōpēlē. Toponyms of this type are much less common in Greek than in Russian (Ivanovka, Alekseevo, Fedorovka).
According to the structural (morphological) classification, toponyms are divided into 4 types:
a) simple;
b) derivatives;
c) complex;
d) composite.
The number of simple toponyms is significantly less than the number of complex and compound toponyms, and their etymology is almost impossible, since many names have been transferred from other languages and are considered as pure bases. Simple non-derivative nouns consist of only the root word and no auxiliary forms.
Derived toponyms are more common. They are formed by adding a morphological affix to the root[24.90].
The third type includes complex toponyms. They consist of two morphemes that act as the basis of a toponym.
Compound toponyms are word combinations consisting of two or more parts.
According to the above classifications, any toponym can be described in terms of the type of object it represents and morphological structure. However, due to the existing problems of toponymy, it is not always possible to determine the meaning of the toponym, which will be discussed below.
• Toponymy problems
The problem with toponymy is that the interpretation of toponyms can be complicated in some cases. This is due to several reasons.
First, the motivation for the name may disappear. It can be difficult to explain the meaning of some toponyms if the reason for giving this or that name is not obvious at first glance. There are names that originally referred to landscape features such as a river or a hill, but have disappeared by our time.
Secondly, it is possible to mistakenly replace some elements with others due to external similarity.
Third, if the elements of a toponym are ambiguous, it can be difficult to interpret.
The location of the elements can also be the reason for the complexity of the interpretation of toponyms.
Sometimes the wrong analogy makes it difficult to understand the meaning of the toponym. This phenomenon can be observed when new residents change existing names. This may be due to the fact that, regardless of the original meaning of toponyms, residents pronounce them according to their own pronunciation style.
Another reason for the difficulty in the interpretation of toponyms is the reverse word formation, that is, the formation of nouns in the opposite direction than expected from each other. Often, a river with an old and forgotten name is renamed after the city that stands on its banks, and not the other way around.
It can be concluded that the interpretation of toponyms can be difficult for a number of reasons: loss of name motivation, incorrect replacement of some elements due to external similarity, polysemy of toponymy elements, order of elements, incorrect true analogy and opposite. formation. The presence of different linguistic sources can also complicate the interpretation of a toponym.
• Basic methods of translation
There are 4 methods:
1. Transliteration;
2. Transcription;
3. Transposition;
4. Follow up.
Transliteration is the transfer of the letters of a foreign word using the letters of the Russian alphabet.
Transliteration can be useful for a translator when languages use different geographic systems, but the graphic units of these languages may overlap, and according to this correspondence, the interlanguage transfer of the corresponding names occurs. When the alphabets of different languages (for example, Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic) have a common base and many of the letters may overlap, the task of displaying names correctly becomes more difficult. The disadvantage is that people who speak a different language often cannot tell how to pronounce a foreign name from the spelling. By transposing a noun in an anonymous form, native speakers of the recipient language often establish a pronunciation for the noun that conforms to the reading rules of their native language. The situation is complicated by the fact that some geographical objects have their names in different Cyrillic languages.
Transcription, derived from the Latin "rewriting", is the transfer of the sounds of a foreign word using the letters of the target language alphabet.
proper names are subjected to transcription: personal names of people, first names, nicknames, surnames, nicknames of animals, toponyms, names of astronomers, ships, spaceships, names of organizations and institutions, magazines, books, films and others. .In many cases, the peculiarities of the pronunciation of geographical names by the local population, and the peculiarities of the pronunciation of personal names by the native speakers cannot be ignored. The reading of the name should be clarified by special references. The language being studied may have a vocabulary of lower case letters, including sound combinations that evoke unwanted associations with vulgarisms and swear words. In this case, it is preferable to deviate from the phonetic principle or regular transcription rules.
Transposition is the use of one language form in the function of another - its opposite member in the paradigmatic series.
Transposition is based on semantic or functional comparison of linguistic units; There are 3 elements to this process:
• original form (copied);
• means of transposition (transpositor);
• result (transposition).
Depending on which category or task a word or its stem belongs to, specific translation processes are called:
• justification (that is, transfer to the class of nouns);
• adjectivalization (switching to the class of adjectives);
• verbalization (verbalization);
• go to the class of adverbs with adverbs;
• pronomialization (switching to the class of pronouns).
Transposition can be called the principle of etymological correspondence. This is because proper names in different languages do not have a common linguistic origin, but are used to convey each other. The principle of transposition is used in Russian-French correspondence and applies to historical and biblical names and names of monarchs.
For the translation of modern Greek and Russian toponyms, this method does not make sense, since toponyms do not change the part of speech when they are transferred from the substrate language to the receiving language[17.56].
Calculus is the creation of new words and phrases according to the lexical-phraseological and syntactic models of another language using language elements. It is not necessary to follow all parts of a foreign word, only one part: TV from the Greek "tele" - "far, far" and the Russian "vision".
When the components of a word (morpheme) or phrase (lexeme) are translated by the corresponding elements of the language being studied, tracing is used to reproduce the combinatorial composition of the word or phrase, not the sound. Tracing has served as the basis for numerous translations of toponyms in cross-cultural communication where transliteration is unacceptable as a translation technique.
Through cross-linguistic interaction, many European languages share common morphemes. Many expressions in the political, scientific and cultural fields are actually observation papers.
Unlike transcription, tracing is not always a simple mechanical operation of translating the original form into the target language; from time to time you have to resort to changing case forms, the number of words in a phrase, affixes, word order, etc.
Monitoring usually depends on:
1. terms, well-known and frequently used words and phrases;
2. names of artistic works;
3. names of political parties and movements;
4. historical events.