Guide to Citizens’ Rights and Responsibilities

WAV E   O F   G O V E R N M E N TA L   C H A N G E   A N D   L E G A L   R E F O R M S
In the 1990s, Japan experienced a political and economic transformation
unlike anything seen since World War II. By 1991, confidence in the diet and
bureaucracy had fallen to single digits as measured by opinion polls. Fueled by
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J a p a n
statute: a law created by a legislature that is
inferior to constitutional law
■ ■ ■  
jurist: a person learned in legal matters; most
often, a judge
litigate: to bring a disagreement or violation
of the law before a judge for a legal decision

the domestic economic slowdown, collapse of artificial stock and land prices,
distrust in government, and international political forces, Japan entered into its
third political revolution.
For nearly forty years, the LDP enjoyed uninterrupted power and unparal-
leled voter support, particularly in rural regions. However, in 1993 the LDP was
ousted from its one-party dominance in the diet. Although the LDP remained
the largest party in the diet, it was forced to assemble a seven-party coalition led
by Prime Minister Morihiro Hosokawa ( b. 1938). Since the mid-1990s, the LDP
has been resigned to coalition-building in the diet, often partnering with politi-
cal parties with opposing policies and ideals. In 2004, the major political parties
in Japan were the LDP, the Democratic Party of Japan, the New Komeito Party,
the Social Democratic Party, and the Japanese Communist Party.
Many theories, ranging from unfavorable domestic developments to intra-
party 
factionalism
, are used to explain the abrupt political change. At minimum,
the LDP suffered from key politicians defecting to new or existing parties. Unlike
in the past, politicians perceived fewer political and monetary benefits to stay-
ing affiliated with the LDP. Furthermore, except for the communists, all parties
began to operate within the same 
ideological
sphere. This newfound mobility
resulted in coalitions, party mergers, splinter political groups, defections among
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J a p a n
THE NATIONAL DIET BUILDING IN TOKYO, JAPAN.
After taking sixteen years to complete, the National Diet Building opened in November
1936 and is home to the two houses of parliament.
(SOURCE: © CARL & ANN PURCELL /CORBIS)
factionalism: a separation of people into
competing, adversarial, and self-serving
groups, usually in government
ideology: a system of beliefs composed of
ideas or values, from which political, social, or
economic programs are often derived
■ ■ ■  

parties, and general uncertainty in party politics. Moreover, voter turnout and
support for the LDP fell. Before 1990, voter participation rates hovered around
75 percent nationwide and surpassed 90 percent in some rural areas. Since that
time, the turnout rate has fallen to levels between 45 and 60 percent. Voters
who are relatively satisfied—or at least not passionately dissatisfied—with the
government’s performance seem to be less likely to vote than in the past,
whereas dissatisfied voters choose to make their opinions felt at the polls.
Riding the new political tide, Japan embarked on a mission to reassess and
reform its governmental structure and law. Under Prime Minister Hosokawa,
a new diet electoral system was created in 1994 based on single-member districts
and proportional representative blocs. Soon thereafter, the Administrative
Reform Council was formed to evaluate the effectiveness of the central govern-
ment. Under the direction of Prime Minister Ryutaro Hashimoto ( b. 1937),
the Council recommended and the diet passed legislation that restructured the
cabinet, reorganized the national administrative organs, privatized over sixty
special public corporations, and streamlined the central government. Also, by
passing laws related to the openness of administrative procedures
(Administrative Procedures Law) and information disclosure (Disclosure of
Information Act), the diet strived to increase the accountability and transparency
of the central government.
Many other legal reforms took hold during this third political revolution.
Japan deregulated and privatized several key industries, particularly under the
direction of Prime Minister Koizumi. Japan also endeavored to reduce public-
works spending and improve access to government. A prime example of these
reforms is the Nonprofit Organization Law of 1998, which gave nonprofit groups
the right to organize and enter into contracts without bureaucratic interfer-
ence. This law led to the 
proliferation
of non-governmental organizations and
increased political activism. Another monumental reform was the overhaul of
the Japanese judicial system. In July 1999, the cabinet established the Justice
System Reform Council, which advocated reforming the legal profession and
revamping the justice system to meet public expectations. By 2004, Japan had
revised century-old procedural rules, formed U.S.–style professional law
schools, created a public jury system for certain criminal trials, and amended
rules governing the activities and number of Japanese and foreign attorneys.
Given the achievements produced by Japan’s first and second political revolu-
tions, Japan and its people should benefit from these and other changes in the
third political and legal revolution.
See also: 
Bicameral Parliamentary Systems; Judicial Independence; Judicial
Review; Taiwan; Thailand.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Curtis, Gerald L. The Logic of Japanese Politics: Leaders, Institutions, and the Limits of
Change. New York: Columbia University Press, 1999.
Curtis, Gerald L. Policymaking in Japan: Defining the Role of Politicians. Tokyo: Japan
Center for International Exchange, 2002.
Dean, Meryll. Japanese Legal System, 2d ed. London: Cavendish Publishing, 2002.
Duck, Ken. “Now that the Fog Has Lifted: The Impact of Japan’s Administrative
Procedures Laws on the Regulation of Industry and Market Governance.” Fordham
International Law Journal 19 (1996):1686–1763.
Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. “Japan: Parliamentary Elections.” 2004.
Ͻhttp://www.idea.int/vt/country_view.cfmϾ.
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13
J a p a n
proliferate: to grow in number; to multiply
at a high rate
■ ■ ■  

“Japan.” CIA World Factbook. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2004.
Ͻhttp://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ja.htmlϾ.
Japan National Institute of Population and Social Security Research. Population Statistics
of Japan 2003. Tokyo: Japan National Institute of Population and Social Security
Research.
Ͻhttp://www.ipss.go.jp/English/psj2003/PSJ2003.pdfϾ.
Kelemen, R. Daniel. “The Americanization of Japanese Law.” University of Pennsylvania
Journal of International Economic Law 23 (2002):269–323.
Kitagawa, Zentaro. Doing Business in Japan. New York:Matthew Bender, 2001.
Milhaupt, Curtis J., J. Mark Ramseyer, and Michael K. Young. Japanese Law in Context:
Readings in Society, the Economy, and Politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press, 2001.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Central Government Reform of Japan.
Ͻhttp://www.kantei.go.jp/foreign/central_government/Ͼ.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Social Security in Japan: Toward a Japanese Model
of the Welfare State.
Ͻhttp://www.mofa.go.jp/j_info/japan/socsec/maruo/index.
html
Ͼ.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Web Japan.
Ͻhttp://web-japan.org/Ͼ.
Port, Kenneth L., and Gerald Paul McAlinn. Comparative Law: Law and the Legal Process
in Japan. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2003.
Office of the Prime Minister. Constitution and Government of Japan.
Ͻhttp://www.
kantei.go.jp/foreign/constitution_and_government/the_constitution_of_japan.html
Ͼ.
Schwartz, Frank J., and Susan J. Pharr. The State of Civil Society in Japan. New York:
Cambridge Press, 2003.
Stockwin, J.A.A. Governing Japan: Divided Politics in a Major Economy, 3d ed. Oxford,
UK: Blackwell Publishers, 1999.
Van Wolferen, Karl. The Enigma of Japanese Power. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1990.
Yanagida, Yukio, Daniel H. Foote, Edward Stokes Johnson Jr., J. Mark Ramseyer, and
Hugh T. Scrogin Jr. Law and Investment in Japan. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1994.
Matthew J. Wilson
Jewish Law
See
Halakhah.
Jordan
Located in the Middle East, Jordan has a landmass of 89,200 square kilo-
meters (34,440 square miles). With Amman as its capital, it is bordered by Syria
on the north, Iraq on the east, Saudi Arabia on the south, and the West Bank
and Israel on the west, with only a small window on the Red Sea. Jordan’s pop-
ulation number some 5.8 million in 2005 not including the many Palestinian
refugees living there. The population is mostly concentrated in urban areas
due to the harsh nature of the countryside: Most of Jordan (75 percent) is
desert. Its peoples are 92 percent Muslim, 6 percent Christian, and 2 percent
other religious minorities. These religions may be further divided into ethnic
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J e w i s h   L a w

groups: Arabs account for 98 percent, Circassians 1 percent, and Armenians
1 percent. The country is rich in phosphate, potash, and shale oil. However,
it is generally poor in natural resources and also lacks water sources.
B R I E F   H I S T O R Y
After World War I, in 1920, France and Britain convened a conference in San
Remo, Italy, where Abdullah Ibn Hussein (1882–1951) was appointed the 
emir
of
Transjordan (known since 1949 as the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan). In 1946,
Transjordan gained its independence as a kingdom, and Emir Abdullah was
declared King Abdullah I. After his assassination in 1951 in Jerusalem, his son
Talal became king, only to 
abdicate
the throne a year later because of his alleged
mental illness. Talal’s son Hussein (1935–1999) succeeded him in 1953, and upon
Hussein’s death in 1999, his son became King Abdullah II (b. 1962). 
The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan became involved in several conflicts, which
in turn jeopardized its existence. It entered the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and was one
of the two Arab nations to come away with increased territory. However, in 1967,
when it participated with Egypt in a second war against Israel, the kingdom lost the
West Bank to Israeli occupation. Moreover, in 1970 Jordan entered into an armed
struggle with the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) that led to the exile of
Yasser Arafat (1929–2004), head of the PLO, and his 
guerrilla
fighters to Lebanon. In
1987 King Hussein called an end to the representation of the West Bank in Jordan’s
parliament and its role as representative of the Palestinian people in the West Bank.
Three short years later King Hussein had to then take a stand in the First Gulf War
(which unleashed a full-scale military conflict between Iraq and the United States
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
15
J o r d a n
emir: a ruler in a country with a government
based on Islamic religious beliefs
abdicate: to renounce or give up power,
usually referring to royalty
■ ■ ■  
guerrilla: a soldier engaged in non traditional
methods of warfare, often separate from any
structured military group
Petra
S Y R I A N
D E S E R T
A
r d
  a
s  
S
a
w
w
a
n
¸
¸
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¯
Jabal Ramm
5,689 ft.
1734 m.
Jabal Naba
2,631 ft.
802 m.
¯
Jabal ar Rimah
4,015 ft.
1224 m.
¯
¯
Qitabash Shamah
3,051 ft.
930 m.
MEDITERRANEAN
SEA
      Gulf
   of
Aqaba
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b
a
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Jo
rd
a
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Hasa H
sH
asa
Hafi
rah
Yarm
uk
Za
¯
¸
Dead
Sea
Qa'al
Jinz
¯
Qa'al
Jafr
¯
Al Mudawwarah
Al ’Aqabah
Ramm
Elat
Ra's an Naqb
Gharandal
Al Jafr
Paran
Qetura
¸
¸
Al Mafraq
Dab'ah
At Tafilah
¸ ¸
Jarash
Teverya
As Salt
Al Karak
Sedan
Gaza
Be'ér Sheva'
Jericho
Jerusalem
Ma'an
¯
Azraq ash
Shishan
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Ar Ramtha¯
¯
Dar'a¯
As Suwayda'
¯
'Amman
¯
Az Zarqa'
Irbid
¯
Ma'daba¯
Al Qatranah
¸ ¯
Ba'ir
¯
Al Hadithah 
¸
Mushash
Hodraj
¯
¸
Golan
Heights
Gaza
Strip
West Bank
Israeli occupied with 
interim status subject to 
Israeli/Palestinian
negotiation. Final status to 
be determined.
S A U D I
A R A B I A
I R A Q
S Y R I A
I S R A E L
E G Y P T
W
S
N
E
Jordan
JORDAN
50 Miles
0
0
50 Kilometers
25
25
(MAP BY MARYLAND CARTOGRAPHICS/ THE GALE GROUP)

and its allies when the former invaded oil-rich Kuwait) and grapple with that deci-
sion’s consequences on the economic and political stability of his country.
In 1994 Jordan signed a peace treaty with Israel following negotiations in
Madrid. This accord ended a forty-six-year conflict between the two countries and
reestablished diplomatic relations between them. The peace treaty also restored
the Jordanian status of the lands it had previously occupied, except for the West
Bank, and confirmed Jordan’s share of the Yarmouk and Jordan Rivers. Since the
U.S. invasion and occupation of Iraq in 2003, Jordan’s King Abdullah II has had to
cope with the mounting economic and political consequences of that war. 
T H E   P L AY E R S
From the day of Jordan’s formation, the king has remained the major player
in the country’s political process. However, in 1970 Arafat and the PLO increased
their power base in Jordan and were on the verge of overthrowing the king. This
situation led to a military confrontation between the two sides, with the king
finally able to defeat the PLO, exiling it to Lebanon. King Hussein thus managed
to dominate political life throughout his reign; he replaced prime ministers and
other officials to reflect his will and sometimes that of the dominant political
parties. His power was supreme and he could not be removed from office.
During his reign, King Hussein faced a number of challenges from different
Arab leaders. President Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970) of Egypt had a power-
ful influence on political life in Jordan. He persuaded King Hussein to sign a
common military defense agreement with Egypt; it obligated Jordan to enter the
Arab-Israeli War of 1967 and resulted in the loss of the West Bank. After that King
Hussein had to respond to the aggressions of President Hafiz Assad (1930–2000)
of Syria, who tried to attack Jordan in order to protect the PLO in 1970. Perhaps
most important of all, from 1985 until 1999, Jordan maintained good relations
with Saddam Hussein (b. 1937), as reflected in Jordan’s support of Iraq in
the 1990 Gulf War. This had drastic economic consequences for Jordan, but
King Hussein, through skillful diplomacy, managed to preserve his nation’s
essentially good relations with the West after Saddam’s initial defeat.
S O C I O E C O N O M I C   C O N D I T I O N S   A N D   Q UA L I T Y   O F   L I F E
Because of its lack of valuable natural resources, Jordan has faced huge
problems in developing its socioeconomic situation. It developed at a high rate
of growth until 1996 when the economy slowed down once again. Jordanians
only attained a 
per capita
income of U.S. $1,760, compared to $2,070 in other
parts of the Middle East and most of North Africa. Jordan also continues to face
a chronically high unemployment rate. The some 500,000 Palestinian refugees
subsisting in refugee camps without their basic needs being met further aggra-
vates this situation and has resulted in growing pressure on the Jordanian gov-
ernment for more action and greater services. Add to this the huge economic
crisis that Jordan had to face after the First Gulf War when 300,000 of its citizens
returned home from different Gulf states, thus creating an even higher unem-
ployment rate, at 30 percent, and added pressures on the government. Such
high unemployment and poverty combined to create a virtual 
schism
in society,
with 30 percent of the population living below poverty.
In addition, Jordan has one of the highest debt burdens. It is ranked num-
ber sixteen in the world, with foreign debt constituting nearly 95 percent of its
gross domestic product (GDP). However, Jordan ranks number twenty-three
in the world in terms of foreign aid received, with approximately $552 million
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J o r d a n
per capita: for each person, especially for
each person living in an area or country
■ ■ ■  
schism: a separation between two factions or
entities, especially relating to religious bodies

disbursed to its government per year. Such aid has contributed to Jordan’s
development and allowed it to survive some harsh economic realities.
Jordan’s most valued resource is its human capital, especially the high per-
centage of educated and skilled workers. The rate of illiteracy is low compared
to that of other Middle Eastern countries, standing at 14 percent for women and
4 percent for men in 2003. Jordan is also number sixteen in the world in terms
of primary school enrollment. It has additionally made great strides in the pro-
vision of health services (which constitute 9% of the nation’s GDP), as reflected
in the high life expectancy of 77.7 years for the entire population and a low
infant mortality rate of 2.7 percent. In 2003 female life expectancy was 80 years,
with that of the male population at 75 years. With its skilled workforce Jordan
ranks number seventy-four in Internet service among nations, boasting some
212,000 end-users.
G O V E R N M E N T   S T R U C T U R E
The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is a constitutional monarchy. The
government is based on a constitution written in 1947 and amended in 1952; it
remains the basic legal document of the kingdom. The constitution provides the
king with vast powers and allows the creation of a 
bicameral
system. This system
of government is a remnant of tribal structure whereby the emir leads all tribes;
however, the emir (before Jordan’s formation as a 
sovereign
nation) had a con-
sultative council that helped him govern. Thus, the Jordanian system is based on
that concept and the continuous authority of the king to dominate political life
while allowing the Jordanian people to express their own points of view.
According to the constitution, the reigning monarch is the head of state,
the chief executive, and the commander in chief of the armed forces. The king
exercises his executive authority through the prime minister and a Council of
Ministers. The Council of Ministers is responsible to the elected House of
Deputies, which along with the House of Notables constitutes the legislative
branch of the government. The judiciary is an independent body.
Political life under the Hashemite monarchy has undergone continuous
change. King Hussein implemented 
martial law
when he perceived a threat to
his rule and captured a number of the opposition’s leaders, only to release them
when they would publicly acknowledge his supreme authority. Thus, Jordan has
been in continuous turmoil for most of its history. Political parties may partici-
pate in the political process so long as they accept and recognize the Hashemite
as Jordan’s legitimate rulers. The country’s leading Muslim parties range from
nationalist
to
fundamentalist
in their views. All have gained seats in the lower
chamber of the legislature, but no representative of these parties has ever been
named prime minister or dominated the country’s political life.
D I V I S I O N   O F   P O W E R
Rule in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is divided between the legislative
and executive branches. The judiciary does not play an important role. Similar to
the British system, the legislature is made up of two chambers: the lower cham-
ber or parliament (the House of Deputies), called Majlis el Nouwab, and the
upper chamber (the House of Notables) called Majlis el Aayan. The lower cham-
ber is popularly elected, and until 1967 half its deputies hailed from the West
Bank. From 1967 to 1987 King Hussein suspended the operations of parliament,
replacing it with three appointed National Consultative Councils and claiming
that free elections could not be held while Israel occupied the West Bank.
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J o r d a n