Guide to Citizens’ Rights and Responsibilities
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Klaipeda · ˇSiauliai Panevezys Vilnius Kaunas . R U S S I A P O L A N D L A T V I A B E L A R U S W S N E Lithuania LITHUANIA 40 Miles 0 0 40 Kilometers 20 20 ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ ratify: to make official or to officially sanction ■ ■ ■ (MAP BY MARYLAND CARTOGRAPHICS/ THE GALE GROUP) appointments to prime minister and the Cabinet of Ministers as a check on the president’s authority. Like many Western European systems, the Lithuanian judiciary has sever- al divisions: a constitutional court that hears only constitutional challenges to laws, judicial rulings, and executive decrees; a regular judicial hierarchy head- ed by a Supreme Court for ordinary civil and criminal cases; a Senate of Judges drawn from the membership of the Supreme Court that overturns court decisions that conflict with the European Convention on Human Rights; an administrative courts system for disputes about government actions and ben- efits; and a set of arbitration boards to hear various other disputes. The judi- ciary is independent, and Lithuanian citizens are able to exercise a full range of political and civil rights. Lithuania entered the European Union (EU) on May 1, 2004. The transi- tion to the EU highlighted problems of government corruption. A land- planning scandal in 2003 started a chain of wide-scale investigations, which led to the conviction of public officials and judges as well as the impeachment of the president in 2003. According to the Special Investigation Bureau in Lithuania, corruption occurs in 70 percent of public procurements. The proliferation of corruption affects many differing aspects of society, including education, health services, and economic development. Lithuania continues to work with the EU and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to address these concerns. See also: Estonia; European Union; Latvia. B I B L I O G R A P H Y Clouatre, Douglas. “Lithuania.” In Legal Systems of the World: A Political, Cultural, and Social Encyclopedia, ed. Herbert M. Kritzer. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC CLIO, 2001. Freedom House. “Lithuania.” Freedom in the World 2004. New York: Freedom House, 2004. Ͻhttp://www.freedomhouse.org/research/freeworld/2004/countryrat- ings/ lithuania.htm Ͼ. “Lithuania.” CIA World Factbook. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2004. Ͻhttp://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ geos/lh.htmlϾ. United Nations Online Network in Public Administration and Finance. “Country Report of Lithuania.” Nations in Transit 2004. Ͻhttp://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/ public/documents/nispacee/unpan016581.pdf Ͼ. University of Washington, Baltic States Studies. Encyclopedia of Baltic History. Ͻhttp://depts.washington.edu/baltic/encyclopedia.htmlϾ. U.S. Department of State, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs. “Background Note: Latvia,” December 2004. Ͻhttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5378.htmϾ. Melissa J. Comenduley Luxembourg The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg sits historically, politically, and linguis- tically at the intersection of the Romance and Germanic language and cultural communities, bordering the countries of France, Germany, and Belgium. 104 G O V E R N M E N T S O F T H E W O R L D L u x e m b o u r g impeach: to accuse of a crime or misconduct, especially a high official; to remove from a position, especially as a result of criminal activity proliferate: to grow in number; to multiply at a high rate arbitration: a method of resolving disagree- ments whereby parties by agreement choose a person or group of people familiar with the issues in question to hear and settle their dispute ■ ■ ■ Luxembourg is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government, although the Grand Duke retains somewhat more influence than do many other constitutional monarchs. In 1951 Luxembourg became a found- ing member of what eventually became the European Union (EU). In 2004 Luxembourg City was one of the three capitals of the EU and home to many of its institutions, including the European Court of Justice. Luxembourg is landlocked and is 2,586 square kilometers (1,034 square miles) in area. Its estimated population in 2001 was 441,300. Traditionally, Luxembourgers have been a homogeneous people. In modern times, however, because citizens of the EU can live and work in any of its mem- ber nations, almost one-third of the labor force is made up of foreign workers. Luxembourg has a nearly 100 percent literacy rate and one of the highest standards of living in Europe. Owing in part to its location, Luxembourg frequently has been subject to invasion. The country began a four-century period of foreign rule after the Duke of Burgundy conquered the area in 1443. The modern nation of Luxembourg traces its origins to 1815, when the Congress of Vienna created a buffer state from the region that now contains the modern countries of Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. To appease Prussia, Luxembourg was separated from that state and trans- formed into an independent grand duchy and a member of the German Confederation of the Rhine. In 1867 Prussian occupa- tion ended, and Luxembourg became a neutral and truly inde- pendent nation. In 1890 control of the Grand Duchy passed from Dutch kings to Adolphus, Duke of Nassau-Weilburg, from whose family the reigning Grand Duke still descends. In 1919 Luxembourg declared itself a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Luxembourg’s Constitution was enacted on October 17, 1868. There is compulsory voting in parliamentary elections for all citizens over the age of eighteen. The national parliament is known as the Chamber of Deputies; it has sixty deputies who are elected for a five-year term by means of universal suffrage and a system of propor- tional representation. After the June 2004 elections the Chamber of Deputies included members from five different political parties, although the nation’s cabinet was formed by a coalition of the two largest parties, the Christian Social People’s Party and the Socialist Workers’ Party. Jean- Claude Juncker (b. 1954), leader of the Christian Social Party, became prime minister in 2004. In addition to the Chamber of Deputies, the Grand Duke appoints a Council of State (composed of twenty-one members) that advises the Chamber on all proposed legislation and has a very limited veto power. The courts are separate and independent in Luxembourg and are based on the French model. The highest court is the Supreme Court of Justice. There are also two district courts, which serve as the courts of first instance (i.e., the entry court into the court system). In American usage the district courts would be called trial courts. In 1996 a constitutional court was G O V E R N M E N T S O F T H E W O R L D 105 L u x e m b o u r g F A S T F A C T S The ancient Saxon name of both the country of Luxembourg and its capital city means “Little Fortress,” symbolizing its important strategic position as the so-called Gibraltar of the north. ■ ■ ■ Buurgplaatz 1,835ft. 559 m. A R D E N N E S S ûre C le rf S û re A lz et te Ei sc h M os el le Sûre O u r Petrusse Bettembourg Mondorf Hesperange Mamer Walferdange Mersch Redange Ettelbruck Echternach Bettendorf Clervaux Wiltz Vianden Strassen Bertrange Sanem Schifflange Diekirch Capellen Remich Grevenmacher Differdange Esch Petange Dudelange Luxembourg G E R M A N Y F R A N C E BELGIUM Luxembourg W S N E LUXEMBOURG 20 Miles 0 0 20 Kilometers 10 10 (MAP BY MARYLAND CARTOGRAPHICS/ THE GALE GROUP) created. Although Luxembourgish is the language spoken at home, the lan- guage of the courts and the rest of the government is French. See also: European Union; Parliamentary Systems. B I B L I O G R A P H Y The Government of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Luxembourg City: Service Information et Presse du Gouvernement, 1999. Wessels, Wolfgang, Andreas Maurer, and Jurgen Mittag. Fifteen into One? The European Union and Its Member States. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2003. Mark C.Miller 106 G O V E R N M E N T S O F T H E W O R L D L u x e m b o u r g M Macau See Hong Kong and Macau. Macedonia Macedonia (officially called the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) is a mountainous country situated on the Balkan Peninsula of Europe. Macedonia borders Serbia and Montenegro, Bulgaria, Albania, and Greece and is home to just over 2 million people. Like several other Balkan countries, Macedonia has a sub- stantial Muslim population (approximately 30%) with a remaining 70 percent iden- tifying as Christian. Macedonia is ethnically diverse; Macedonians and Albanians are the two largest ethnic groups (64% and 25% of the population, respectively) and Macedonian and Albanian are the most widely spoken languages. The 1913 Treaty of Bucharest partitioned the territory known as Macedonia among Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania, and Greece. The Serbian-controlled area of Macedonia became part of the newly formed state of Yugoslavia in 1919. Macedonia proclaimed independence on September 8, 1991, following the disintegration of Yugoslavia. International recognition of Macedonia’s independence was delayed because of objections from Greece, due to the new country’s use of what Greece considered a Hellenic name and symbols. Although Macedonia was admitted to the United Nations in 1993, the dispute between Greece and Macedonia has continued into the twenty-first century. Macedonia has been plagued by continued ethnic tension, fed in part by the status of neighboring Kosovo. An armed insurgency by ethnic Albanians demanding greater civil rights ended with a cease-fire in 2001. The cease-fire agreement provided for the government coalition to expand and include the major opposition parties and called for constitutional and legislative changes that improved civil rights for minority groups. G O V E R N M E N T S O F T H E W O R L D 107 ■ ■ ■ At the time of its independence, Macedonia was the least-developed of the Yugoslav republics. Unemployment remains a critical economic problem, with an estimated one-third of the workforce unemployed in 2003. Although the coun- try’s leadership has shown commitment to economic reform, free trade, and regional integration , these issues have been overshadowed by the fragile political situation. The Macedonian government is described as a parliamen- tary democracy. The government is based on the constitution adopted on November 17, 1991. In November 2001 the parlia- ment approved a series of new constitutional amendments that strengthened minority rights. The Macedonian government is divided into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The Macedonian legislature, called the Assembly, has one house with 120 seats. Eighty-five members are elected by popular vote within constituencies, and thirty-five members are chosen based on the percentage that a political party gains from the overall vote. Members of the Assembly hold four- year terms. Citizens of Macedonia are allowed to vote at the age of eighteen, and the right to vote is universal. The executive branch is composed of a president and a prime minister. The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year term and serves as commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The prime minister is the head of government and is elected by the Assembly along with the cabinet, called the Council of Ministers. The judicial branch is composed of a Supreme Court, a con- stitutional court, and the Republican Judicial Council. The judges for all courts are appointed by the parliament. Personal security is a concern in Macedonia, where shoot- ings, bombings, and kidnappings occasionally occur. Other problems include threats and attacks on journalists, human traf- ficking, organized crime, and police abuse (particularly of Roma, or Gypsies). Thus the implementation of constitutional and legal protection of individual rights remain problematic. Nevertheless, Freedom House rates the condition of citizen rights in Macedonia as improving, while still rating the country as “partly free.” See also: Greece; Kosovo; Serbia and Montenegro. B I B L I O G R A P H Y Freedom House. “Macedonia.” Freedom in the World 2003. New York: Freedom House, 2003. Ͻhttp://freedomhouse.org/research/freeworld/2003/countryratings/macedonia.htmϾ. Glenny, Misha. The Balkans: Nationalism, Wars and the Great Powers, 1804–1999. New York: Penguin Putnam, 1999. “Macedonia.” CIA World Factbook. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2005. Ͻhttp://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mk.htmlϾ. Poulton, Hugh. Who Are the Macedonians? Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000. U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. “Macedonia.” Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 2003. Ͻhttp://www.state.gov/ g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2003/27852.htm Ͼ. 108 G O V E R N M E N T S O F T H E W O R L D M a c e d o n i a regional integration: the movement of eco- nomic or political power to a central authority from regional centers of power ■ ■ ■ Korab 9,068 ft. 2764 m. Kozjak 5,728 ft. 1746 m. Rujen 7,388 ft. 2252 m. NI DZ E OGRA ZDEN JAKU PICA C R NA GO RA BELASICA Ohridsko Jezero Prespansko Jezero Límni Doïránis C r n o Vard ar Tr e s k a B re ga lnica Skopje Bitola Tetovo Strumica Prilep Debar Struga Sopotnica Kocani Luke Veles Blatec Kumanovu Gevgelija Dobrino Idhoméni Flórina G R E E C E ALBANIA SERBIA & MONTENEGRO BULGARIA Macedonia W S N E MACEDONIA 60 Miles 0 0 60 Kilometers 20 40 20 40 ˆ ˆ ˆ (MAP BY MARYLAND CARTOGRAPHICS/ THE GALE GROUP) The World Bank Group. “Macedonia” World Development Indicators Database, August 2004. Ͻhttp://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?SelectedCountry= MKD&CCODE= MKD&CNAME=Macedonia%2C+FYR&PTYPE=CP Ͼ. Shawn T. Flanigan Madagascar The Republic of Madagascar is located about 400 kilome- ters (250 miles) off the west coast of southern Africa in the Indian Ocean, east of Mozambique. It has a tropical climate along its narrow coastal plain and a temperate climate in its mountainous center. The country is the world’s fourth largest island, slightly smaller than Texas. Among its modest natural resources are graphite, chromite, coal, bauxite, salt, mica, some semiprecious stones, and fish. The economy is overwhelmingly agricultural, with 85 percent of the population employed in farming of some sort. According to the CIA World Factbook, Madagascar had a population of nearly 17 million in 2003. Once an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a French colony in 1885, before reestablishing its full independence in 1960. These negotiations for independence were led by President Philibert Tsiranana (1912–1978), who was firmly committed to maintaining positive relations with the West. In consolidating power just after independence, Tsiranana saw to it that his party, whose main source of support was the middle class, maintained political control of the country. This suppression of opposition parties combined with extended economic stagnation eventually led to high levels of political instability, with nationwide protests that included students, workers, and peasants. These circumstances caused President Tsiranana to dissolve the First Republic and surrender control of the country to the Malagasy military in 1973. Didier Ratsiraka (b. 1936), a military offi- cer and dedicated Marxist, took power and was elected president by referendum in 1975, receiving 95 percent of the vote. However, both the suppression of civil liberties and Ratsiraka’s willingness to make capitalist economic adjustments eroded his base of support, until he was forced to hold new national elections in 1993. He lost to chief opposition leader Albert Zafy (b. 1927). Ratsiraka was then reelected in 1996 following allegations of Zafy’s abuse of power and an economic crisis. Nonetheless, Ratsiraka was defeated again in a contested election, where after a brief electoral dispute Marc Ravalomanana (b. 1949) was declared the winner and Ratsiraka left the country. Madagascar is a multiparty republican form of government based on French civil law and Malagasy traditional law, with uni- versal suffrage for every citizen eighteen or older. Its constitution, adopted in 1992 and revised in 1998, gives extensive powers to the president, although in theory it divides power between the branches of government. The executive branch consists of the president, a prime minister chosen by the National Assembly and G O V E R N M E N T S O F T H E W O R L D 109 M a d a g a s c a r Cap Saint Vincent Cap Saint André Cap Masoala Cap Saint Marie Cap d'Ambre MASSIF DU TSARATANANA M A S S IF D E L 'I S A L O B em a ra h a P la te a u Mt. Maromokotro 9,436 ft. 2876 m INDIAN OCEAN M o z a m b iq u e C h a n n e l M en ar a n d ra Onilahy Mang oky Man ia B et sib ok a M a h a ja m b a Sofia Lac Kinkony Lac Alaotra Baie de Baly Baie de Narinda B aie d'A nto ngila Canal des Pangalanes Nosy Be Nosy Sainte Marie Île de Mayotte (FR.) Île Juan de Nova (FR.) Îles Glorieuses (FR.) Antananarivo Antsirabe Antsiranana Mahajanga Toamasina Fianarantsoa Toliara ¨ Marovoay Besalampy Antalaha Maroantsetra Ambilobe Ambatondrazaka Ambatolampy Vatomandry Moramanga Foolpointe Manakara Farafangana Vangaindrano Manantenina Ranomena Morondava Belo- Tsiribihina Antanambe Rantabe Maevatanana Fenoarivo Be Manja Atsimo Tolanaro (Fort Dauphin) Androka Amboasary Ambositra Download 4.77 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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