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527

functional generalization. The topographical description of

generalization refers to the occurrence of relevant behaviors

(e.g., social skills) under different nontraining conditions

(Stokes & Osnes, 1989). These nontraining conditions can

be settings or situations (setting generalization), behaviors

(response generalization), or time-based (maintenance). A

more detailed and now-classic treatment of topographical

generalization is described by Stokes and Osnes (1989). 

A functional approach to generalization consists of two

types: (a) stimulus generalization, which is the occurrence of

the same behavior under variations of the original training

conditions (the greater the difference between training condi-

tions and subsequent environmental conditions, the less the

generalization), and (b) response generalization, which is the

control of multiple behaviors by the same stimulus. 

An extremely important goal of SSI is to determine the reli-

ability and efficiency of competing problem behaviors relative

to socially skilled alternative behaviors. Competing problem

behaviors will be performed instead of prosocial behaviors if

the competing behaviors are more efficient and reliable than the

prosocial behavior. Efficient behaviors (a) are easier to perform

in terms of response effort and (b) produce reinforcement more

rapidly. Reliable behaviors are those that produce the desired

outcomes more frequently than do prosocial behaviors. For ex-

ample, pushing into the lunch line may be more efficient and re-

liable than politely asking to cut into line.

To program for functional generalization, school person-

nel should (a) decrease the efficiency and reliability of com-

peting inappropriate behaviors and (b) increase the efficiency

and reliability of prosocial behaviors. The former can be ac-

complished by many of the procedures listed in Table 20.1

under Removing Competing Problem Behaviors. The latter

can be achieved by spending more time and effort in building

fluency of trained social skills using combinations of model-

ing, coaching, and, most important, behavioral rehearsal with

specific performance feedback (see Gresham, 2002).

We are convinced that SSI outcomes can be greatly en-

hanced by adopting these best-practice principles and strate-

gies. They have been incorporated into a number of proven

behavioral interventions (see Coleman & Webber, 2001;

Elksnin & Elksnin, 1995; Shinn, Walker, & Stoner, 2002;

Walker, Colvin, & Ramsey, 1995).

CONCLUSION

Throughout this chapter we have made the case (a) that the

K–12 student population with behavior disorders is under-

served by schools; (b) that powerful, proven interventions

are available that are designed for and have been tested with

students with behavior disorders in the contexts of both

mainstreamed and specialized school settings; (c) that the BD

professional is ideally positioned to assume a leadership role

in coordinating these interventions while involving key social

agents in the lives of students with behavior disorders (and

their parents, teachers, peers); and (d) that the BD professional

has the knowledge, expertise, and necessary role position to

work effectively with other agencies and professionals in de-

veloping prevention initiatives at both the preschool and K–12

grade levels. As we noted earlier, the time and opportunities

have never been better to pursue this agenda because of the

more open receptiveness of school leaders and on-line person-

nel to effective interventions that can make the school safer,

violence free, and more inclusive, positive, and effective.

However, a missing link in this regard has been and continues

to be the organized advocacy to promote and support adoption

of this changed and relatively ambitious agenda for the BD

professional and larger field.

Walker et al. (1998) have contributed and outlined a na-

tional agenda for the BD field that provides a template to assist

in guiding its future development. Further, in June 2001 a

group of 18 BD professionals in higher education, who are

well-known scholar-researchers within the BD field, con-

vened at the University of Virginia for a two-day meeting to

further elaborate this agenda and develop an action plan to

promote and support its implementation nationally over the

next several years. In terms of content, this group of profes-

sionals focused its deliberations on three major areas: (a) the

role of science in the affairs of the BD field, (b) the identifica-

tion and promulgation of evidenced-based interventions that

work for students with behavior disorders in school settings,

and (c) development of interdisciplinary and interagency

strategies for improving the effectiveness of both intervention

and prevention initiatives. Two outcomes of this meeting in-

volved the decision to create an academy of BD professionals

devoted to the prevention of learning and behavior disorders in

the context of schooling and the development of a monograph

that will define best practices in the BD field and set evaluative

standards for the same.

We are optimistic that these efforts will result in enhance-

ments of schools’ capacities to serve BD students and their

families better. We look forward to participation in the

achievement of this agenda for the BD field.

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