Handbook of psychology volume 7 educational psychology
Implications for Application in Curriculum
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- What Policy Issues are Implied from the Educational Psychology’s Knowledge Base in Twenty-first-Century Reform Efforts 601
- Implications for Application in New Learning Communities and Cultures
- WHAT POLICY ISSUES ARE IMPLIED FROM THE APPLICATION OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY’S KNOWLEDGE BASE IN TWENTY-FIRST-CENTURY REFORM EFFORTS
- Policy Issues Related to Definitions of Intelligence and Ability
- Policy Issues Related to New Teacher and Student Roles in Teaching, Learning, and Assessment
- Policy Issues Related to Individualization of Learning Content and Experiences
- Policy Issues Related to Content and Curriculum That Meet Whole Learner Needs
- Policy Issues Related to Diversity and Inclusion of All Learners
- References 603
- Policy Issues Related to Testing and Accountability
Implications for Application in Curriculum, Instruction, and Assessment According to Sadker and Sadker (1994), “most educators regard the formal curriculum as the organization of in- tended outcomes for which the school says it is responsible” (p. 163). The twentieth-century curriculum was primarily fo- cused on knowledge transmission (Berryman, 1993; Carroll, 2000; Judy & D’Amico, 1998; Shephard, 2000) and the in- struction practices and assessments aligned with the trans- mission of established knowledge in content areas. Jones (2001) points out that educational technology clearly brings 600 Research to Policy for Guiding Educational Reform to the forefront debates about education as the transmission of information versus education as learning and experience— formal versus natural education. Bransford (2001) points out that being knowledge-
eventually operate and then designing learning opportunities by working backwards from that perspective. Carroll (2000, 2001) describes how a networked community can support three types of knowledge-centered outcomes: knowledge transmission, knowledge adaptation, and knowledge gener- ation. Designs for knowledge-centered curricula assumes that the learners are immersed in current events that highlight top- ics and issues from which they can learn and to which they can contribute through active engagement with others in the networked community who are also actively addressing the topics and issues. Educators and community members can provide leadership by thinking more deeply about the knowl- edge and skills applicable to living and working in the twenty-first-century society and taking very seriously ques- tions about what should be taught by helping learners priori- tize the focus of their learning activities (Bransford, 2001). Personal and interpersonal development features of cur- riculum also emerge from the social interactions among those in the networked community. An integrated focus on the per- sonal, organizational, and community levels of learning clar- ifies the need for a holistic and integrated curriculum characterized by core standards for basic content knowledge and skills, for career development, and for social-emotional and physical development. Underlying this framework is the thinking of those who work with living systems and seek to center on human needs and natural processes that must be supported in the systems that address technical issues (cur- riculum, instruction, assessment) and organizational issues (management structures, decision making, policies). Thus, increased attention is needed to the research-based living- systems framework and issues relevant to the personal, technical, and organizational domains of electronic-learning cultures and communities (see McCombs, 2000b, and McCombs & McNabb, 2001). Closely intertwined with the holistic, community-based curriculum is instruction that is essentially learner-centered in the sense of connecting with the knowledge, skills, atti- tudes, and beliefs of learners (APA Task Force of Psychology in Education, 1993; APA Work Group of the Board of Educa- tional Affairs, 1997; Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 1999; McCombs, 2001a; McCombs & Whisler, 1997). McCombs (2000a) points out that both students and teachers are colearn- ers with changing roles as the learning content, context, and community shape individual expertise in nonlinear learning approaches. As Peck explains, the notion of teacher no longer seems like the appropriate term for the leaders in these net- worked communities. Leaders—or expert learners, as Carroll (2001) describes them—will need to view a large part of their responsibility as the creation of the social conditions that will promote learning. Twenty-first-century instruction needs to focus on foster- ing self-directed learning habits along a development contin- uum, from novice to mature learner and expert. Rose (2001) explains that development of higher-level thinking skills— learning that can be applied to a variety of situations, rather than just recitation of facts—happens best when the learners interact both with the information and with others to discuss their understanding. Accepting this idea requires an under- standing that learning happens in the context of interaction with other humans. When the interactions are an important part of the learning process, then developing the learning community is important to the process (Rose, 2001). Balancing a focus on learners with a focus on the desired academic, social, and personal knowledge domains required of responsible twenty-first-century learners and citizens promises to offset traditional learning system problems with learner motivation, engagement, and social development (McCombs, 2001b). Instructional practices within a holistic curriculum that is knowledge-centered also involves a serious examination of how to help students learn with understanding rather than only memorization. This practice can help stu- dents organize their knowledge, skills and attitudes in ways that support transfer—where transfer includes the idea of preparing people for future learning (see Bransford & Schwartz,1999). A shift in assessment practices to support a learning cul- ture is advocated by Shepard (2000). She argues that it is es- sential to move the current paradigm to one that blends current ideas from cognitive, constructivist, and sociocultural theories because of the corruption of the standards movement into a heavy-handed system of rewards and punishments. Dy- namic, ongoing assessments that can help determine what a student is able to do independently and with adult guidance are needed to guide optimal development. By placing learn- ers in communities of practice, individuals can become in- creasingly adept and competent while developing robust understandings of concepts. Good assessments, Shepard ar- gues, are those that help students rethink old understandings, draw new connections, and create new applications. Self- assessments that help students monitor their own progress also helps them share responsibility for learning with teach- ers while developing increased ownership of students’ own learning. The evaluation of teaching should include helping teachers make their own investigations and reflections visible to students as part of the teaching and learning dialogue. For What Policy Issues are Implied from the Educational Psychology’s Knowledge Base in Twenty-first-Century Reform Efforts? 601 these changes to occur, however, teacher development must include an understanding of motivation and how to develop classroom cultures in which learning and learners are at the center. Attention must also be focused on helping teachers reflect on their beliefs and undergo a personal change process.
Honey (2001) addresses the unrealized promise of emerging technologies to create new types of learning communities and cultures. Although technologies can provide powerful scaffolds to complex processes like inquiry and computa- tional reasoning and the interpretation of media artifacts, she points out that we also know that school organizations are powerful mediators and frequently powerful resisters of learning innovations. Honey reports that when student learn- ing does improve in schools that become technology-rich, those gains are not caused solely by the presence of technol- ogy or by isolated technology-learner interactions. Rather, she says such changes are grounded in learning environments that prioritize and focus on core educational objectives at the organizational level (Center for Children and Technology, 2000; Chang et al., 1998; Hawkins, Spielvogel, & Panush, 1997; Honey, Hawkins, & Carrigg, 1998). Witherspoon (2001) has outlined several issues for which educational psychology’s knowledge base could be helpful in designing effective learning communities and cultures. These issues center on ethical governance practices that are relevant to both on- and off-line applications. They include the following: • Designing civil interchange into system functions and promoting intercultural sensitivity. • Developing rigorous standards to protect and enforce the privacy of participants, to assure the identity of students taking tests, and to determine that inquiries for student- related information come from those authorized to have that information. • Providing accessibility of communities and programs to those with disabilities as well as to those in poverty areas. Wilhelm (2001) raises another organizational issue associ- ated with networked learning, the central issue of equity. In terms of achieving greater equality in students’ opportunity to learn, technological innovation often drives a deeper wedge between the haves and have-nots; thus less affluent districts are often playing catch-up to cohorts with higher per-pupil expenditures. While acknowledging the digital divide, Peck (2001) contends that if the student-to-student interactions were expanded and electronic support was provided to scaf- fold students in the process of providing feedback to each other, the costs of electronic learning could be dramatically reduced, making it accessible to everyone possessing the nec- essary learning to learn skills. WHAT POLICY ISSUES ARE IMPLIED FROM THE APPLICATION OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY’S KNOWLEDGE BASE IN TWENTY-FIRST-CENTURY REFORM EFFORTS? This final section integrates prior sections by summarizing major future issues likely to be faced by educational psychol- ogy, including political realities and the role of educational psychologists in educating the public about its knowledge base and how it can best be used in transformative ways to create the most effective teaching and learning environments for all learners in the twenty-first century. Major changes in how education is viewed, its purpose, and its structures as we enter into a century with more opportunities for the use of emerging technologies for education are highlighted. Policy issues that surfaced in chapters of this Handbook are dis- cussed along with others from my own work in school reform.
Without rethinking definitions of intelligence and ability, Sternberg (in this volume) argues that societal invention may play more of a role in sorting than does nature because soci- ety places high value on test scores for sorting and placement decisions. This practice can lead to disenfranchisement and the narrowing of skills valued, not to mention disregarding the value of creative and practical skills. Because of links to power structures, such social systems tend to perpetuate themselves and become endlessly looping closed systems. Policies thus need to emphasize multiple measures and reex- amination of selection and placement criteria. In general, policies are needed that recognize the growing knowledge base on alternative conceptions of intelligence and ability. These policies must emphasize the valuing of di- versity and pluralism at all levels of the educational system. They must embrace Banks’ (2000) plea for new conceptions of race and ethnicity, intellectual ability, and knowledge sys- tems, such that these concepts do not privilege particular racial, ethnic, social class, or gender group; that is, new con- ceptions are needed that reflect the experiences of all groups. They must also embrace new notions about learning and learners that unite rather than divide people and groups,
602 Research to Policy for Guiding Educational Reform derived from research-validated principles such as those defined in the APA Work Group of the Board of Educational Affairs’ (1997) Learner-Centered Psychological Principles. Policy Issues Related to New Teacher and Student Roles in Teaching, Learning, and Assessment The spirit of vitality in learner-centered schools is that aspect of the culture committed to learning and change. Teachers’ needs to be learners must be part of the culture that supports student motivation, learning, and achievement. The nature of the culture formed among teachers committed to high achievement for all learners is one that is also committed to ongoing learning, change, and improvement. The process must be one that supports continuous examination and criti- cal inquiry into ways of helping students learn better; it must become a normal activity that involves the whole faculty and builds community. The vision is subject to change, and the whole system maintains flexibility and openness to new learning, transformation, and change. Policies are needed that provide for flexibility in programs that support learning and change for all learners, including teachers and other adults. Roles must be subject to change and one-size-fits-all thinking must be eliminated. Allowing students to become teachers and listening to and respecting the perspectives of all learners must be part of the culture and embedded in policies that govern school functioning.
Integrated instructional programs must themselves be a model of the very process and quality they want to engender in teachers as learners. To produce quality teaching and learn- ing, learners must experience both quality content and processes. Systems that foster quality by fear-based or puni- tive measures engender fear, withdrawal, and halfhearted compliance. Unfortunately, this situation is coloring much of today’s reform agenda. Principles of respect, fairness, auton- omy, intellectual challenge, social support, and security must guide the standard-setting and implementation process. Time for learning and change—to share successful practices, ex- periment, and continually improve must be acknowledged. Policies to deal with these issues must be guided by an understanding of schools as living systems as well as an un- derstanding of individual, organizational, and community learning needs. Punitive and coercive practices should be avoided, and collaborative and inclusive practices should be encouraged. Trust building and relationship building through dialogue need to be explicitly acknowledged in federal, state, and local school policies.
From a broad systems view, many educators, researchers, and policy makers agree that the current educational, judicial, and social systems are not working (e.g., Nissen, 1999; Norris, 1999; Wheatley, 1999). They see the systems as not only unconnected but also based on outdated thinking and old models of human learning, growth, and development. Fur- thermore, these current systems are often based on principles applicable to nonliving, mechanical systems and do not match the uncertainty and complexity of living, human sys- tems; thus, it is time to explore a new model that includes what is needed in living systems to bring the system into bal- ance. It is time to support a cycle of positive teacher and youth development and learning. When successful school reform efforts are analyzed (e.g., Fullan, 1997), the critical difference is in how these practices are implemented and in whether there is explicit and shared attention given to individual learners and their unique cog- nitive as well as social and emotional learning needs. The
This focus, however, must be balanced with challenging academic content and standards and attention to social and emotional development. Policies are therefore needed that address this balance through integrative curricula, multiple assessment measures, and a focus on school climate. Practices that encourage stu- dent responsibility for academic and nonacademic outcomes and that provide learners with choice and control should be explicitly addressed in policies. Policy Issues Related to Diversity and Inclusion of All Learners Healthy learning communities have the further defining qual- ities of accepting, incorporating, and honoring all diverse views. Individuals welcome divergent perspectives because they understand that the underlying outcome is learning and change in a context of respect and caring. Individuals also un- derstand that learning communities broaden their perspec- tives to make room for the learning that can occur to encompass all points of view without making anyone wrong. When different world views and beliefs are held, inclusive dialogue becomes the process for learning; relationships
References 603 become the vehicle for change in beliefs and assumptions about learning, learners, and teaching. Self-organizing learn- ing communities then meet individual needs for safety, and they encourage new relationships and ways of generating new relationships. Each learner’s perspective is a valued medium of learning and a catalyst for change and improvement. Policies must acknowledge the relational aspects of learn- ing and the value of each person in the system. Practices that exclude individuals—be they students, teachers, parents, or others who have a stake in the educational system—must be avoided. Policies must acknowledge the knowledge base on effective communication and organizational development in outlining guidelines for dealing with diversity and inclusion. Policy Issues Related to Testing and Accountability Practices such as grading of schools, teachers, and adminis- trators based on the quality of student achievement can mis- place the responsibility for learning (cf. McCombs, 2000a). Even if teachers are held responsible for student learning, it is
incentives, but teachers know well that many incentives (e.g., grades, fear of discipline) work only for some students. When teachers overly control the learning process, they may get compliance, but they won’t get responsibility. Responsibility begins with making choices. Without the opportunity to choose and face the consequences of those de- cisions, there is no sense of ownership. Ownership, which re- sults from choices, is empowering. Without empowerment and ownership, there is no responsibility or accountability— there is blaming and compliance. With ownership, learning is fun and exciting for students and teachers, and both share in the pleasures and responsibilities of control. When re- sponsibility and power are shared, the natural response is empowerment, ownership, and responsibility. We own what
principles and framework when they are applied to policy recommendations. To summarize, the following are what I see as specific policy recommendations that can further the application of educational psychology’s knowledge base to school reform: • Policies must capture individual and organizational pur- poses directed at continuous change and learning as a holistic process that involves intellect, emotion, and spirit. • Policies must emphasize new leadership roles that em- power teachers and students alike to take increased control over their own learning and development. • Policies must emphasize a balance between concerns with high achievement and concerns with meeting individual learning, motivational, and social needs of diverse students. • Policies must emphasize change strategies focused on in- clusive dialogue, building respectful relationships, and practices that are owned by all participants. • Policies must value outcomes that go beyond academic achievement to emotional and social outcomes that in- clude increased personal and social responsibility. In conclusion, we have a responsibility upon which many in our profession are increasingly recognizing and acting— the responsibility to educate policy makers, parents, and the public about what we know that can create both effective ed- ucational experiences and a positive change or educational reform process. Not only do we need to help others under- stand new conceptions of learning, motivation, and develop- ment, but we also need to help them understand that learning and change are flip sides of the same social-psychological process—the process of changing one’s mind. Processes and contexts that support learning are also those that support change. Change—like learning—is an ongoing, dynamic, and lifelong process of continuous improvement. It can be motivating, invigorating, and challenging, or it can be fear- ful, intimidating, and punitive. As we embark on a new decade of school reform, educational psychology promises to provide more insights into not only how to enhance individ- ual learning, motivation, and development. It also promises to assist in understanding the conditions, contexts, and processes for effective change and educational reform. This is a challenge that I believe the field is ready to accept. Based on the contributions to educational psychology in this vol- ume and in the field in general, this is also a challenge on which I believe we are prepared and ready to deliver. Download 9.82 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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