Handbook of psychology volume 7 educational psychology


Download 9.82 Mb.
Pdf ko'rish
bet48/153
Sana16.07.2017
Hajmi9.82 Mb.
#11404
1   ...   44   45   46   47   48   49   50   51   ...   153

References

197

Sharan, S., Kussell, P., Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., Bejarano, Y., Raviv,

S., & Sharan, Y. (1984). Cooperative learning in the classroom:

Research in desegregated schools. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Sharan, S., & Shachar, C. (1988). Language and learning in the



cooperative classroom. New York: Springer-Verlag.

Sharan, Y., & Sharan, S. (1992). Expanding cooperative learning



through group investigation. New York: Teachers College Press.

Slavin, R. E. (1977). Classroom reward structure: An analytic and

practical review. Review of Educational Research, 47, 633– 650. 

Slavin, R. E. (1983a). Cooperative learning. New York: Longman.

Slavin, R. E. (1983b). When does cooperative learning increase stu-

dent achievement? Psychological Bulletin, 94, 429–445. 

Slavin, R. E. (1987). Cooperative learning: Where behavioral and

humanistic approaches to classroom motivation meet. Elemen-



tary School Journal, 88, 9–37.

Slavin, R. E. (1989). Cooperative learning and achievement:

Six theoretical perspectives. In C. Ames & M. L. Maehr

(Eds.), Advances in motivation and achievement (pp. 136–164).

Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.

Slavin, R. E. (1991). Are cooperative learning and untracking harm-

ful to the gifted? Educational Leadership, 48(6), 68–71. 

Slavin, R. E. (1992). When and why does cooperative learning

increase achievement? Theoretical and empirical perspectives.

In R. Hertz-Lazarowitz & N. Miller (Eds.), Interaction in coop-



erative groups: The theoretical anatomy of group learning

(pp. 145–173). New York: Cambridge University Press. 

Slavin, R. E. (1994). Using Student Team Learning (2nd ed.).

Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, Center for Social Organi-

zation of Schools. 

Slavin, R. E. (1995). Cooperative learning: Theory, research, and



practice (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. 

Slavin, R. E. (1996). Cooperative learning: Theory, research,

and implications for active learning. In D. Stern (Ed.), Active

Learning (pp. 88–101). Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-

operation and Development.

Slavin, R. E., & Madden, N. A. (2000). Roots & Wings: Effects of

whole-school reform on student achievement. Journal of Educa-



tion for Students Placed at Risk, 5(1 & 2), 109–136.

Slavin, R. E., & Oickle, E. (1981). Effects of cooperative learning

teams on student achievement and race relations: Treatment by

race interaction. Sociology of Education, 54, 174 –180.

Solomon, D., Watson, M., Schaps, E., Battistich, V., & Solomon, J.

(1990). Cooperative learning as part of a comprehensive class-

room program designed to promote prosocial development. In

S. Sharan (Ed.), Cooperative learning: Theory and research.

(pp. 19–31). New York: Praeger.

Stern, D. (Ed.). (1996). Active learning. Paris: Organization for

Economic Co-Operation and Development. 

Stevens, R. J., Madden, N. A., Slavin, R. E., & Farnish, A. M. (1987).

Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition: Two field

experiments. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 433– 454.

Stevens, R. J., & Slavin, R. E. (1995a). Effects of a cooperative

learning approach in reading and writing on academically hand-

icapped and nonhandicapped students. The Elementary School

Journal, 95(3), 241–262.

Stevens, R. J., & Slavin, R. E. (1995b). The cooperative elementary

school: Effects on students’ achievement, attitudes, and social

relations. American Educational Research Journal, 32, 321–351.

Stevens, R. J., Slavin, R. E., & Farnish, A. M. (1991). The effects of

cooperative learning and direct instruction in reading compre-

hension strategies on main idea identification. Journal of Educa-

tional Psychology, 83, 8–16.

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1985). The social identity theory of inter-

group behavior. In S. Worchel & W. C. Austin (Eds.), Psychol-

ogy of intergroup relations (pp. 7–24). Chicago: Nelson Hall.

Talmage, H., Pascarella, E. T., & Ford, S. (1984). The influence

of cooperative learning strategies on teacher practices, stu-

dent perceptions of the learning environment, and academic

achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 21,

163–179.


Tharp, R., & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life. New York:

Cambridge University Press.

Turner, J. C. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-

categorization theory. New York: Basil Blackwell.

U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education

Statistics. (2000). The condition of Education 2000 (Report No.

NCES 2000-602). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing

Office.

Van Oudenhoven, J. P., Van Berkum, G., & Swen-Koopmans, T.



(1987). Effect of cooperation and shared feedback on spelling

achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 92–94.

Van Oudenhoven, J. P., Wiersma, B., & Van Yperen, N. (1987).

Effects of cooperation and feedback by fellow pupils on spell-

ing achievement. European Journal of Psychology of Education,

2, 83–91.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society (M. Cole, V. John-Steiner,

S. Scribner, & E. Souberman, Eds.). Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press. 

Wadsworth, B. J. (1984). Piaget’s theory of cognitive and affective

development (3rd ed.). New York: Longman.

Webb, N. M. (1989). Peer interaction and learning in small groups.



International Journal of Educational Research, 13, 21–39.

Webb, N. M. (1992). Testing a theoretical model of student interac-

tion and learning in small groups. In R. Hertz-Lazarowitz &

N. Miller (Eds.), Interaction in cooperative groups: The the-



oretical anatomy of group learning (pp. 102–119). New York:

Cambridge University Press. 

Webb, N. M., & Farvier, S. (1994). Promoting helping behavior

in cooperative small groups in middle school mathematics.



American Educational Research Journal, 31(2), 369–395.

Wheeler, R., & Ryan, F. L. (1973). Effects of cooperative and

competitive classroom environments on the attitudes and


198

Cooperative Learning and Achievement: Theory and Research

achievement of elementary school students engaged in social

studies inquiry activities. Journal of Educational Psychology,

65, 402–407.

Williams, K., & Karau, S. (1991). Social loafing and social com-

pensation: The effects of expectations of co-worker perfor-

mance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(4),

570–581.

Wittrock, M. C. (1986). Students’ thought processes. In M. C.

Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of research on teaching (3rd ed.)

(pp. 297–314). New York: Macmillan.

Yager, S., Johnson, R. T., Johnson, D. W., & Snider, B. (1986). The

impact of group processing on achievement in cooperative learn-

ing. Journal of Social Psychology, 126, 389–397.

Yost, C. A., & Tucker, M. L. (2000). Are effective teams more

emotionally intelligent? Confirming the importance of effective

communication in teams. Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 42(2),

101–109.

Zahn, G., Kagan, S., & Widaman, K. (1986). Cooperative learning

and classroom climate. Journal of Social Psychology, 24,

351–362.


CHAPTER 10

Relationships Between Teachers and Children

ROBERT C. PIANTA, BRIDGET HAMRE, AND MEGAN STUHLMAN



199

Observed Interactions Between Teachers

and Children

217

Summary

218

CORRELATES OF RELATIONAL DIMENSIONS

218

Summary

220

EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS

RELATED TO CHILD-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS

220


Issues in Prevention-Oriented Applications Involving

Child-Teacher Relationships

221

Influencing Relationship Resources in Schools

223

Summary

227

CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS:

DEVELOPMENTAL ANALYSIS OF CHILD-TEACHER

RELATIONSHIPS

227

REFERENCES



228

Child-Teacher Relationships: Historical Perspectives 

and Intersections

200

DEVELOPMENTAL SYSTEMS THEORY

201

Principles Influencing the Behavior and Analysis

of Developmental Systems

202

Centrality of Relationships in Human Development

204

CONCEPTUAL-THEORETICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH

ON CHILD-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS

205


A Conceptual Model of Child-Teacher Relationships

206

External Influences

213

Summary

215

DIMENSIONS, TYPOLOGIES, AND DEVELOPMENTAL

CHANGE IN CHILD-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS

215


The Child’s View

215

Teachers’ Views

216

of findings involving how teachers and students relate to one

another that has been spread among sources and outlets that

often have little contact and overlap. This integrative, cross-

cutting perspective, utilizing the more holistic, molar unit of

analysis of relationship, is consistent with modern views

of human development in which the developmental process is

viewed as a function of dynamic, multilevel, reciprocal inter-

actions involving person and contexts (Bronfenbrenner &

Morris, 1998; Lerner, 1998; Magnusson & Stattin, 1998).

Including a chapter of child-teacher relationships in this

volume marks, to some degree, the coming of age of this

research and conceptual focus. Over the course of the last

10 years there has been an accelerating trend for increased

attention to the role of relationships between children and

teachers in influencing child outcomes (Pianta, 1999).

It is the broad aim of this chapter to summarize historic

trends in the emergence of research on child-teacher relation-

ships and to further advance theoretical and applied efforts by

organizing the available work on child-teacher relationships

currently residing across diverse areas of psychology and

education.

Relationships between teachers and children have been a

focus of educators’ concerns for decades, although this atten-

tion had taken different forms and had been expressed using a

wide range of constructs and paradigms. Over many years,

diverse literatures attended to teachers’ and students’ expecta-

tions of one another, discipline and class management, teach-

ing and learning as socially mediated, teachers’ own self- and

efficacy-related feelings and beliefs, school belonging and

caring, teacher-student interactions, and the more recent at-

tention to teacher support as a source of resilience for children

at risk (e.g., Battistich, Solomon, Watson, & Schaps, 1997;

Brophy & Good, 1986; Eccles & Roeser, 1998). In many

ways, these literatures provided the conceptual and scientific

grounding for the present focus on child-teacher relation-

ships, and in turn, a focus on relationships provides a mecha-

nism for integrating these diverse literatures into a more

common language and focus. In fact, one of the goals of this

chapter is to advance theory and research in these many areas

by changing the unit of analysis and focus to relationships be-

tween teachers and children. This new framework has poten-

tial for integrating what, up to this point, has been a large array


200

Relationships Between Teachers and Children

Child-Teacher Relationships: Historical Perspectives

and Intersections

Relationships, detailed in a subsequent section, involve many

component entities and processes integrated within a dy-

namic system (Hinde, 1987; Magnusson & Stattin, 1998).

Components include expectations, beliefs about the self or

other, affects, and interactions, to identify a few (Eccles &

Roeser, 1998; Pianta, 1999; Sroufe, 1989a; Stern, 1989). In a

school or classroom setting, each of these components has its

own extensive literature, for example, on teacher expecta-

tions or the role of social processes as mediators of instruc-

tion (see Eccles & Roeser, 1998). Therefore, the study of

child-teacher relationships traces its roots to many sources in

psychology and education.

Educational psychology, curriculum and instruction, and

teacher education each provide rich sources of intellectual

nourishment for the study of relationships between teachers

and children. From a historical perspective, early in Dewey’s

writing (Dewey, 1902/1990) and in texts by Vygotsky (e.g.,

1978), there are frequent references to relationships between

teachers and children. Social relations, particularly a sense of

being cared for, were considered an important component in

Dewey’s conceptualization of the school as a context, and

certainly Vygotsky’s emphasis on support provided to the

child in the context of performing and learning challenging

tasks was a central feature of his concept of the zone of prox-

imal development.

Based on the exceptionally detailed descriptions of human

activity and interaction undertaken by Barker and colleagues

(see Barker, 1968), extensive observational research on class-

room interactions involving teachers and children was con-

ducted, with refinement and further development of methods

and concepts culminating in the foundation studies on child-

teacher interactions by Brophy and Good (1974).

Somewhat parallel to the focus of Brophy and Good on

classroom interactions was the emergence of the broad liter-

atures on interpersonal perception that took form in research

on attribution and expectation, notably studies by Rosenthal

(1969) on the influence of expectations on student perfor-

mance. These studies strongly indicated that instruction is

something more than simply demonstration, modeling, and

reinforcement, but instead a complex, socially and psycho-

logically mediated process. Work on student motivation, self-

perceptions, and goal attainment has documented strong

associations between these child outcomes and school con-

texts, including teachers’ attitudes and behaviors toward the

child (see Eccles & Roeser, 1998). More recently, research

and theory on the concept of students’ help-seeking behavior

(Nelson-Le Gall & Resnick, 1998; Newman, 2000) actively

addresses the integration of emotions, perceptions, and moti-

vations in the context of instructional interactions, pointing

again to the importance of the relational context created for

the child.

At the same time, there has always been anecdotal and

case study evidence for child-teacher relationships in the

clinical psychology and teacher training literatures. These

anecdotes typically describe how a child’s relationship with a

particular teacher was instrumental in somehow rescuing or

saving that child and placing the child on the path to success

and competence in life (e.g., Pederson, Faucher, & Eaton,

1978; Werner & Smith, 1980). Such stories often provide

compelling evidence for attempts to harness the potential of

these relationships as resources for children.

Developmental psychology and its applied branches re-

lated to prevention provide considerable conceptual and

methodological underpinnings to the study of child-teacher

relationships (see Pianta, 1999). The study of human devel-

opment has contributed a scientific paradigm for studying

relationships, conceptual models that advance ideas about

how contexts and human development are linked with one

another, and scores of studies demonstrating the value of

relationships for human development in other arenas (see

Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998).

In part because of the extensive and long-standing empirical

and theoretical work on marital and parent-child relationships,

core conceptual and methodological frameworks and concepts

for understanding and studying interpersonal relationships

have emerged (Bakeman & Gottman, 1986; Bornstein, 1995).

These scientific tools form a foundation, or infrastructure,

that can be applied to the study of children and teachers

(e.g., Howes, Hamilton, & Matheson, 1994; Pianta & Nimetz,

1991). Clearly, the work of Bowlby (1969), Ainsworth

(e.g., Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978), and Sroufe

(1983; Sroufe & Fleeson, 1988) on attachment between chil-

dren and parents provides some of the strongest theoretical and

empirical support for the influence of relationships between

children and adults on child development. It was largely the

concentrated focus on understanding child-mother attach-

ment that helped to advance the idea of child-adult relation-

ships as systems and to identify the component processes and

mechanisms.

In addition to work on child-parent attachment, develop-

mental psychologists were involved in research on early inter-

vention and day care experiences as they contribute to child

development, which identified relational or interactional as-

pects of those settings (e.g., quality of care and caregiver sen-

sitivity) that were related to child outcomes (Howes, 1999,

2000a). Furthermore, this line of inquiry also described how

structural aspects of settings (e.g., child-teacher ratios and


Developmental Systems Theory

201

teacher training and education) contributed to the social and

emotional quality of interactions between child and teacher

(see NICHD Early Child Care Research Network [NICHD

ECCRN], 2002). Developmental methodologists interested in

child-parent interactions, peer, and marital interactions as well

as those working from a comparative or ethological frame-

work contributed substantially to the study of child-teacher

relationships by describing the functions and processes of

relationships (Bakeman & Gottman, 1986; Hinde, 1987).

Finally, recent work on motivation and the development of

the child’s sense of self and identity provides compelling evi-

dence that teachers are an important source of information and

input to these processes (Eccles & Roeser, 1998).

Over the last two decades, as developmental psychology,

school psychology, and clinical psychology have formed

convergent interests (Pianta, 1999) and as the more integra-

tive paradigm of developmental psychopathology emerged

(Cicchetti & Cohen, 1995), relationships between children

and adults have received much attention as a resource that can

be targeted and harnessed in prevention efforts. Paradigms for

prevention and early intervention in the home environment,

as well as intervention approaches focusing on parent-child

dyads in which the child demonstrates serious levels of prob-

lem behavior (e.g., Barkley, 1987; Eyberg & Boggs, 1998),

have focused on improving the quality of child-parent rela-

tionships. That work has resulted in a fairly large body of

knowledge concerning how relationships can be changed

through intentional focus on interactions, perceptions, and in-

teractive skills (Eyberg & Boggs, 1998). These studies have

provided a strong basis for extensions into school settings

(McIntosh, Rizza, & Bliss, 2000; Pianta, 1999).

In more recent years the focus on prevention that has arisen

from this nexus of overlapping interests among scientists,

policy makers, and practitioners has viewed school settings as

a primary locus for the delivery and infusion of resources that

have a preventive or competence-enhancing effect (Battistich

et al., 1997; Cowen, 1999; Durlak & Wells, 1997). School-

based mental health services, delivery of a range of associated

services in full-service schools, reforms aimed at curriculum

and school management, and issues related to school design

and construction frequently identify child-teacher relation-

ships as a target of their efforts under the premise that

improving and strengthening this school-based relational re-

source can have a dramatic influence on children’s outcomes

(see Adelman, 1996; Battistich et al., 1997; Durlak & Wells,

1997; Haynes, 1998). Finally, it has also been suggested that

one by-product of such efforts to enhance relationships be-

tween teachers and children is an improvement in teachers’

own mental health, job satisfaction, and sense of efficacy

(e.g., Battsitich et al., 1997; Pianta, 1999).

Although diverse areas of psychology address issues

related to relationships between teachers and children,

extending back in time nearly 80 years, the study of child-

teacher relationships has not, until the last decade, been an

area of inquiry unto itself. This lack of focus has been due to

the widely scattered nature of its intellectual roots and a ten-

dency toward insularity among disciplines, problems with the

use of different terminology and languages, seams between

research and practice and between psychology in education

and psychology in the family or laboratory, and the lack of

theoretical models that adequately emphasize the role of mul-

tiple contexts in the development of children over the life

span (Lerner, 1998). Perhaps one of the strongest concep-

tual advances contributing to the last decade of work on

child-teacher relationships has been the developmental

psychopathology paradigm, with its emphasis on integration

across diverse theoretical frameworks and its embrace of a

developmental systems model of contexts and persons in time

(see Cicchetti & Cohen, 1995).

The present focus on child-teacher relationships reflects

this integration and interweaving of theoretical traditions,

methodologies, and applications across diverse fields. This

area of inquiry, understanding, and application is inherently

interdisciplinary. Yet the organizing frame for such work—

although different areas have evolved from different

traditions—is best found in current models of child develop-

ment (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998; Cairns & Cairns,

1994; Lerner, 1998; Magnusson & Stattin 1998; Sameroff,

1995). In these models, development of the person in context

is depicted as a function of dynamic processes embedded in

multilevel interactions between person and contexts over

time. Developmental systems theory (Lerner, 1998) forms

the core of an analysis of child-teacher relationships.



Download 9.82 Mb.

Do'stlaringiz bilan baham:
1   ...   44   45   46   47   48   49   50   51   ...   153




Ma'lumotlar bazasi mualliflik huquqi bilan himoyalangan ©fayllar.org 2024
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling