Handbook of psychology volume 7 educational psychology
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- Relationships Between Teachers and Children
- Issues in Prevention-Oriented Applications Involving Child-Teacher Relationships 221 Influencing Relationship Resources in Schools
- Child-Teacher Relationships: Historical Perspectives and Intersections 200
- The Child’s View 215 Teachers’ Views 216
- Developmental Systems Theory 201
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operation and Development. Slavin, R. E., & Madden, N. A. (2000). Roots & Wings: Effects of whole-school reform on student achievement. Journal of Educa- tion for Students Placed at Risk, 5(1 & 2), 109–136. Slavin, R. E., & Oickle, E. (1981). Effects of cooperative learning teams on student achievement and race relations: Treatment by race interaction. Sociology of Education, 54, 174 –180. Solomon, D., Watson, M., Schaps, E., Battistich, V., & Solomon, J. (1990). Cooperative learning as part of a comprehensive class- room program designed to promote prosocial development. In S. Sharan (Ed.), Cooperative learning: Theory and research. (pp. 19–31). New York: Praeger. Stern, D. (Ed.). (1996). Active learning. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development. Stevens, R. J., Madden, N. A., Slavin, R. E., & Farnish, A. M. (1987). Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition: Two field experiments. Reading Research Quarterly, 22, 433– 454. Stevens, R. J., & Slavin, R. E. (1995a). Effects of a cooperative learning approach in reading and writing on academically hand- icapped and nonhandicapped students. The Elementary School
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198 Cooperative Learning and Achievement: Theory and Research achievement of elementary school students engaged in social studies inquiry activities. Journal of Educational Psychology,
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CHAPTER 10 Relationships Between Teachers and Children ROBERT C. PIANTA, BRIDGET HAMRE, AND MEGAN STUHLMAN 199 Observed Interactions Between Teachers and Children 217 Summary 218 CORRELATES OF RELATIONAL DIMENSIONS 218
EDUCATIONAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS RELATED TO CHILD-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS 220
Issues in Prevention-Oriented Applications Involving Child-Teacher Relationships 221 Influencing Relationship Resources in Schools 223 Summary 227 CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS: DEVELOPMENTAL ANALYSIS OF CHILD-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS 227 REFERENCES 228 Child-Teacher Relationships: Historical Perspectives and Intersections 200 DEVELOPMENTAL SYSTEMS THEORY 201
CONCEPTUAL-THEORETICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH ON CHILD-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS 205
A Conceptual Model of Child-Teacher Relationships 206 External Influences 213 Summary 215 DIMENSIONS, TYPOLOGIES, AND DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGE IN CHILD-TEACHER RELATIONSHIPS 215
The Child’s View 215 Teachers’ Views 216 of findings involving how teachers and students relate to one another that has been spread among sources and outlets that often have little contact and overlap. This integrative, cross- cutting perspective, utilizing the more holistic, molar unit of analysis of relationship, is consistent with modern views of human development in which the developmental process is viewed as a function of dynamic, multilevel, reciprocal inter- actions involving person and contexts (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998; Lerner, 1998; Magnusson & Stattin, 1998). Including a chapter of child-teacher relationships in this volume marks, to some degree, the coming of age of this research and conceptual focus. Over the course of the last 10 years there has been an accelerating trend for increased attention to the role of relationships between children and teachers in influencing child outcomes (Pianta, 1999). It is the broad aim of this chapter to summarize historic trends in the emergence of research on child-teacher relation- ships and to further advance theoretical and applied efforts by organizing the available work on child-teacher relationships currently residing across diverse areas of psychology and education. Relationships between teachers and children have been a focus of educators’ concerns for decades, although this atten- tion had taken different forms and had been expressed using a wide range of constructs and paradigms. Over many years, diverse literatures attended to teachers’ and students’ expecta- tions of one another, discipline and class management, teach- ing and learning as socially mediated, teachers’ own self- and efficacy-related feelings and beliefs, school belonging and caring, teacher-student interactions, and the more recent at- tention to teacher support as a source of resilience for children at risk (e.g., Battistich, Solomon, Watson, & Schaps, 1997; Brophy & Good, 1986; Eccles & Roeser, 1998). In many ways, these literatures provided the conceptual and scientific grounding for the present focus on child-teacher relation- ships, and in turn, a focus on relationships provides a mecha- nism for integrating these diverse literatures into a more common language and focus. In fact, one of the goals of this chapter is to advance theory and research in these many areas by changing the unit of analysis and focus to relationships be- tween teachers and children. This new framework has poten- tial for integrating what, up to this point, has been a large array
200 Relationships Between Teachers and Children Child-Teacher Relationships: Historical Perspectives and Intersections Relationships, detailed in a subsequent section, involve many component entities and processes integrated within a dy- namic system (Hinde, 1987; Magnusson & Stattin, 1998). Components include expectations, beliefs about the self or other, affects, and interactions, to identify a few (Eccles & Roeser, 1998; Pianta, 1999; Sroufe, 1989a; Stern, 1989). In a school or classroom setting, each of these components has its own extensive literature, for example, on teacher expecta- tions or the role of social processes as mediators of instruc- tion (see Eccles & Roeser, 1998). Therefore, the study of child-teacher relationships traces its roots to many sources in psychology and education. Educational psychology, curriculum and instruction, and teacher education each provide rich sources of intellectual nourishment for the study of relationships between teachers and children. From a historical perspective, early in Dewey’s writing (Dewey, 1902/1990) and in texts by Vygotsky (e.g., 1978), there are frequent references to relationships between teachers and children. Social relations, particularly a sense of being cared for, were considered an important component in Dewey’s conceptualization of the school as a context, and certainly Vygotsky’s emphasis on support provided to the child in the context of performing and learning challenging tasks was a central feature of his concept of the zone of prox-
Based on the exceptionally detailed descriptions of human activity and interaction undertaken by Barker and colleagues (see Barker, 1968), extensive observational research on class- room interactions involving teachers and children was con- ducted, with refinement and further development of methods and concepts culminating in the foundation studies on child- teacher interactions by Brophy and Good (1974). Somewhat parallel to the focus of Brophy and Good on classroom interactions was the emergence of the broad liter- atures on interpersonal perception that took form in research on attribution and expectation, notably studies by Rosenthal (1969) on the influence of expectations on student perfor- mance. These studies strongly indicated that instruction is something more than simply demonstration, modeling, and reinforcement, but instead a complex, socially and psycho- logically mediated process. Work on student motivation, self- perceptions, and goal attainment has documented strong associations between these child outcomes and school con- texts, including teachers’ attitudes and behaviors toward the child (see Eccles & Roeser, 1998). More recently, research and theory on the concept of students’ help-seeking behavior (Nelson-Le Gall & Resnick, 1998; Newman, 2000) actively addresses the integration of emotions, perceptions, and moti- vations in the context of instructional interactions, pointing again to the importance of the relational context created for the child. At the same time, there has always been anecdotal and case study evidence for child-teacher relationships in the clinical psychology and teacher training literatures. These anecdotes typically describe how a child’s relationship with a particular teacher was instrumental in somehow rescuing or saving that child and placing the child on the path to success and competence in life (e.g., Pederson, Faucher, & Eaton, 1978; Werner & Smith, 1980). Such stories often provide compelling evidence for attempts to harness the potential of these relationships as resources for children. Developmental psychology and its applied branches re- lated to prevention provide considerable conceptual and methodological underpinnings to the study of child-teacher relationships (see Pianta, 1999). The study of human devel- opment has contributed a scientific paradigm for studying relationships, conceptual models that advance ideas about how contexts and human development are linked with one another, and scores of studies demonstrating the value of relationships for human development in other arenas (see Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). In part because of the extensive and long-standing empirical and theoretical work on marital and parent-child relationships, core conceptual and methodological frameworks and concepts for understanding and studying interpersonal relationships have emerged (Bakeman & Gottman, 1986; Bornstein, 1995). These scientific tools form a foundation, or infrastructure, that can be applied to the study of children and teachers (e.g., Howes, Hamilton, & Matheson, 1994; Pianta & Nimetz, 1991). Clearly, the work of Bowlby (1969), Ainsworth (e.g., Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978), and Sroufe (1983; Sroufe & Fleeson, 1988) on attachment between chil- dren and parents provides some of the strongest theoretical and empirical support for the influence of relationships between children and adults on child development. It was largely the concentrated focus on understanding child-mother attach- ment that helped to advance the idea of child-adult relation- ships as systems and to identify the component processes and mechanisms. In addition to work on child-parent attachment, develop- mental psychologists were involved in research on early inter- vention and day care experiences as they contribute to child development, which identified relational or interactional as- pects of those settings (e.g., quality of care and caregiver sen- sitivity) that were related to child outcomes (Howes, 1999, 2000a). Furthermore, this line of inquiry also described how structural aspects of settings (e.g., child-teacher ratios and
Developmental Systems Theory 201 teacher training and education) contributed to the social and emotional quality of interactions between child and teacher (see NICHD Early Child Care Research Network [NICHD ECCRN], 2002). Developmental methodologists interested in child-parent interactions, peer, and marital interactions as well as those working from a comparative or ethological frame- work contributed substantially to the study of child-teacher relationships by describing the functions and processes of relationships (Bakeman & Gottman, 1986; Hinde, 1987). Finally, recent work on motivation and the development of the child’s sense of self and identity provides compelling evi- dence that teachers are an important source of information and input to these processes (Eccles & Roeser, 1998). Over the last two decades, as developmental psychology, school psychology, and clinical psychology have formed convergent interests (Pianta, 1999) and as the more integra- tive paradigm of developmental psychopathology emerged (Cicchetti & Cohen, 1995), relationships between children and adults have received much attention as a resource that can be targeted and harnessed in prevention efforts. Paradigms for prevention and early intervention in the home environment, as well as intervention approaches focusing on parent-child dyads in which the child demonstrates serious levels of prob- lem behavior (e.g., Barkley, 1987; Eyberg & Boggs, 1998), have focused on improving the quality of child-parent rela- tionships. That work has resulted in a fairly large body of knowledge concerning how relationships can be changed through intentional focus on interactions, perceptions, and in- teractive skills (Eyberg & Boggs, 1998). These studies have provided a strong basis for extensions into school settings (McIntosh, Rizza, & Bliss, 2000; Pianta, 1999). In more recent years the focus on prevention that has arisen from this nexus of overlapping interests among scientists, policy makers, and practitioners has viewed school settings as a primary locus for the delivery and infusion of resources that have a preventive or competence-enhancing effect (Battistich et al., 1997; Cowen, 1999; Durlak & Wells, 1997). School- based mental health services, delivery of a range of associated services in full-service schools, reforms aimed at curriculum and school management, and issues related to school design and construction frequently identify child-teacher relation- ships as a target of their efforts under the premise that improving and strengthening this school-based relational re- source can have a dramatic influence on children’s outcomes (see Adelman, 1996; Battistich et al., 1997; Durlak & Wells, 1997; Haynes, 1998). Finally, it has also been suggested that one by-product of such efforts to enhance relationships be- tween teachers and children is an improvement in teachers’ own mental health, job satisfaction, and sense of efficacy (e.g., Battsitich et al., 1997; Pianta, 1999). Although diverse areas of psychology address issues related to relationships between teachers and children, extending back in time nearly 80 years, the study of child- teacher relationships has not, until the last decade, been an area of inquiry unto itself. This lack of focus has been due to the widely scattered nature of its intellectual roots and a ten- dency toward insularity among disciplines, problems with the use of different terminology and languages, seams between research and practice and between psychology in education and psychology in the family or laboratory, and the lack of theoretical models that adequately emphasize the role of mul- tiple contexts in the development of children over the life span (Lerner, 1998). Perhaps one of the strongest concep- tual advances contributing to the last decade of work on child-teacher relationships has been the developmental psychopathology paradigm, with its emphasis on integration across diverse theoretical frameworks and its embrace of a developmental systems model of contexts and persons in time (see Cicchetti & Cohen, 1995). The present focus on child-teacher relationships reflects this integration and interweaving of theoretical traditions, methodologies, and applications across diverse fields. This area of inquiry, understanding, and application is inherently interdisciplinary. Yet the organizing frame for such work— although different areas have evolved from different traditions—is best found in current models of child develop- ment (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998; Cairns & Cairns, 1994; Lerner, 1998; Magnusson & Stattin 1998; Sameroff, 1995). In these models, development of the person in context is depicted as a function of dynamic processes embedded in multilevel interactions between person and contexts over time. Developmental systems theory (Lerner, 1998) forms the core of an analysis of child-teacher relationships. Download 9.82 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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