History of Civilizations of Central Asia
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to an end with the establishment of the Pahlavi regime in 1925. The new ruler, Reza Shah (1925–41), did not tolerate dissent; he only wanted support for his drive towards the mod- ernization of the country. This meant that he wanted to portray Iran as a modernizing state to the outside world. Satire was only tolerated if it was aimed at the backward Qajar dynasty. Because all plays had to be cleared by the censors, drama found an outlet in the writing and performance of patriotic and historical dramas eulogizing the glories of the past. Authors had to submit their scripts to the government, i.e. the Ministry of Education, Foundations and Crafts. One of the reasons for plays being censored was that there was a high turnover of censors (momayyezs), each with their own agenda. The published gov- ernment documents of this period provide no evidence of clear detailed policy guidelines on what was permissible and what was not. The personal opinion of the censor therefore 22 Morteza Qoli Khan Fekri, Ahmad Mahmudi, ‘Abdol-Rahim Khalkhali, Afrasiyab Azad, ‘Ali Moham- mad Khan Oveysi, Taqi Raf‘at and ‘Abu’l-Hasan Forughi all had plays performed during this period. 754
Contents ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN played a major role in the decision whether to allow a performance or not. Three crite- ria were usually applied: artistic value (fanni), moral value (akhl¯aqi) and appropriateness (moqtaziy¯at). Hasan Javadi distinguishes three types of plays during this period: historical plays, romantic musical comedies and didactic social comedies. Sadeq Hedayat and many others wrote plays based on episodes from Iranian history. For example, Hedayat wrote two plays, Parvin, Dokhtar-e S¯as¯an (Parvin, the Daughter of Sasan, 1928) and M¯azy¯ar (1933), both of which were nationalistic in tone and took as their theme the Arab invasion of Iran in 640. There were romantic musical comedies such as ‘Abbaseh, Amir’s Sister (‘Abbaseh, Kh¯ahar-e Amir ) by Reza Kamal ‘Shahrezad’, who wrote many more of that type. And, finally, there were didactic social comedies that basically supported the new modernizing efforts (women’s emancipation, hygiene, education), while contrasting them with the back- wardness of the past. Sayyed ‘Ali Nasr (d. 1961), one of the founding fathers of modern Iranian theatre, wrote many such plays, including ‘Ar¯usi-ye Hoseyn ¯ Aq¯a (The Marriage of Hoseyn Aqa, 1939). Another playwright was Zabih Behruz (1891–1971) whose satirical comedy Jijak ‘Ali Sh¯ah criticized social conditions in the country. Despite censorship under the Pahlavi regime, Reza Shah did much for Iranian the- atre. According to Sayyed ‘Ali Nasr, the founder of Komedi-ye Ir¯an, the shah enjoyed the theatre. He also allowed, and even encouraged, women to visit the theatre and to per- form in plays. In 1939 modern theatre received for the first time official recognition as an important section of modern Iranian culture. With the encouragement of Reza Shah, the
was created to train actors and directors so that theatres and plays could be introduced with a view to educating and entertaining the public. For the- atre was considered the best means to educate people about social problems, child rearing and hygiene. The creation of the Honarest¯an had long been a cherished goal of a small group of actors, directors and playwrights who felt that, in order to excel, they had to take a more professional approach to their art. Until then, the only organization to provide a formal training for aspiring actors, directors and set designers was the Estudiyo-ye Der¯am-e Kerm¯ansh¯ahi , established in about 1931. From the foregoing it is clear that modern theatre was a labour of love because every- body involved, whether actor, playwright, director or stage-hand, was an amateur. Each theatrical group consisted of like-minded people, often friends, with a common interest that frequently went beyond that of theatre. Politics and theatre often went together in the early days as well as later. Each group usually had one or more ‘strong man’ who was the driving force behind the theatrical activities and who kept the group together. If he left, the group usually dissolved. These theatrical ‘forces of nature’ were often playwright, 755
Contents Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN translator, actor, director, manager, bookkeeper and stage-hand all rolled into one. The members of the group worked during the day and put on their performances at night. Some- times their enthusiasm and cohesion were such that they stayed together for an extended period of time, which allowed them to perform in cities other than Tehran. There were not many theatres, and they were often used for other functions such as cinema. Performances often took place at schools and in private houses. The plays were mostly translated Western ones, mainly French, in particular Molière. Both translators and actors took liberties with the text. The translators would adapt the play to the contemporary Persian context, while the actors were allowed to improvise, which was in line with the tradition of Iranian comic drama.
During the Second World War, theatre in Iran thrived as never before. Reza Shah had abdicated, and his son Mohammad Reza Shah (1941–79) sat on a shaky throne. Many play- wrights wrote plays and others made translations, for translated plays continued to hold an important place in the repertoire of Iranian companies. Among the new plays, a work pub- lished in 1949 stood out: T¯up-e L¯astik (The Rubber Ball) by Sadeq Chubak, which was a satire on Reza Shah’s police state. Given the new freedoms and possibilities, Western-style dramatic art was for the first time performed by professionals instead of amateurs. ‘Ali Naseriyan and ‘Abbas Javanmard started producing plays with a small company called the National Art Group (Gor¯uh-e Honar-e Melli), created by Shahin Sarkissiyan (1912–66). Some other troupes were also established and plays were staged, before a generally appre- ciative public. However, there was hardly any support from the state or the municipalities and thus these efforts died a natural death. Nor were any new artistically or otherwise significant plays written during this period. In the 1950s theatre came up against competition from the radio, which started to broad- cast plays, first in Tehran and later in an ever-growing number of cities. As a result, Iranian theatre was moribund by the mid-1950s. Acting, directing and writing were still in their infancy despite decades of sometimes vibrant theatre activities. Despite the size of its pop- ulation, Tehran did not have one respectable theatre. The government, which had ‘run’ modern theatre activities from the very beginning, nevertheless took steps to keep it alive in the mid-1950s. To ensure that drama became known among the people, as well as to improve the theatre scene for actors and theatre-goers, the government took a series of steps among which were the already mentioned broadcasting of dramatic serials on the radio. With the introduction of television in 1960, plays were also televised, which meant more work for actors and playwrights and technically broadened the scope for the dra- matic arts. As of 1955–6, Tehran University started to give introductory drama classes for students with the help of some American professors, who were living in Tehran. To ensure 756 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN that actors could perform under better conditions, the ministry also built a number of the- atres in Tehran and in the provincial capitals over the next 15 years. The number of theatre playwrights grew significantly during the 1960s as the result of government incentives. There were three main trends: one based its plays on modern Persian literature, another took its inspiration from Iranian popular dramatic tradition, and the third was influenced by European avant-garde theatre. 23 Experimentation was encouraged by the government so as to enable Iranian theatre to compete with Western theatre in output and quality. However, playwrights who went too far were censored and even jailed. During the late 1960s, and continuing into the 1970s, cen- sorship increased and playwrights became increasingly introvert. Theatre therefore focused on foreign plays, ranging from classical Greek authors like Sophocles and Euripides to Shakespeare, Goethe and Schiller. Even more important was the role of plays by modern American and European authors. Iranian playwrights either joined the worldwide avant- garde movement, or they became representatives of the realist movement, and/ or they took their inspiration from the r¯u-howzi (popular traditional comedy) tradition. Other writ- ers, just as painters did, resisted the appeal of foreign models and sought their inspiration in Iranian dramatic tradition and Iranian popular stories. The mix of modern and traditional, symbolism and realism, foreign influence and social ills remained the main menu offered to theatre-goers until the end of the Pahlavi regime. In addition there was the less literary form of theatre, which was more popular in nature and closer to r¯u-howzi, and which con- tinued to enjoy great popularity. Without the support of the Ministry of Arts and Culture, Radio and Television, modern theatre might have died a quiet death. However, the Shiraz Festival, the Iran Art Festival and some television programmes kept it alive. Just when theatre in Iran seemed to be on the road to revival, the Islamic revolution took place in 1979. Initially scores of theatrical groups were formed and plays, both new and old, were staged in all major towns. However, this ‘Tehran spring’ did not last longer than a year and theatre (like other expressions of opinion) was suppressed. The newly estab- lished Islamic Republic of Iran did not approve of theatre, especially the kind that was imbued with Western tradition. Theatre was socially, religiously and above all politically suspect and hence was relegated to the sidelines. Many leading artists and playwrights such as Gholam Hoseyn Sa‘edi and Bizhan Mofid fled the country, fearing arrest and worse because of their political convictions. With the start of the Iran–Iraq war in 1980, the 23 The leading playwrights of the 1960s and 1970s were Gholam Hoseyn Sa‘edi, ‘Abbas Na‘lbandiyan and Bahram Beyza’i, while the leading stage directors were Mohammad ‘Ali Ja‘fari of Te’atr-e Emruz, ‘Ezzatollah Entezami, ‘Ali Nasiriyan, Arbi Ovanessian, Ja‘far Vali, Davud Rashidi, and ‘Abbas Javanmard of Gor¯uh-e Honar-e Melli. Bahram Beyza’i and Gholam Hoseyn Sa‘edi (under the pen name of Gowhar Morad) also wrote for film, while the latter also wrote sociological studies. 757 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN government imposed strict censorship. However, contrary to expectations, the regime did not ban theatre altogether. In fact, it came to understand the importance of theatre as a political propaganda tool. Apart from the performance of ta‘ziyeh (religious drama), no plays were staged for some time. After this initially difficult period, however, theatre returned to the stage with a venge- ance. The change started after the end of the Iran–Iraq war in 1988, when the country could focus once again on living rather than on dying. In terms of content and genre, noth- ing much had changed, except for one thing, viz. the enormous demand and enthusiasm for theatre in the country and that there was more of it than before. The drama schools at all major universities were reopened and private drama training institutions began operating, all with large numbers of students. Most importantly, the government and its various insti- tutions have adopted theatre as a means of politically correct expression. As in the Reza Shah period, those plays which support the objectives of the regime are supported through the organizations affiliated with the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance. As a result, the First International Congress of Islamic Dramatic Art took place in 1991, and in 1993 the First Congress on Ta‘ziyeh was organized. This was followed by the First Congress on Children’s Theatre in 1994 and the Tehran International Puppet Festival Congress in 1996. All these conferences continue to be held at regular intervals. In addi- tion, an increasing number of theatre-related festivals are being organized. For example, the
(Dawn) Theatre Festival is part of the larger Fajr Festival, which has been organized every year since 1981 to commemorate the victory of the Islamic revolution. Playwrights continue to write about the same themes as under the Pahlavi regime. Although experi- mentation remains an important characteristic of playwriting, there is now more recourse to traditional models such as naqq¯ali (story-telling) and r¯u-howzi. The long suppression of theatre may explain the enormous popularity it now enjoys in the Islamic Republic of Iran. CINEMA
Iran’s first cinema was established in Tehran in 1903 by Ebrahim Khan Sahhaf-Bashi: first in the back of his shop, where he sold and exhibited curiosities such as electrical or X-ray apparatus, and then in 1905 – or shortly after – in a large hall in Cheraq-Gaz (now Amir Kabir) Avenue; tea and snacks were served. Due to financial problems, Sahhaf-Bashi had to close his cinema in 1906 and he went abroad at the end of 1908 or in early 1909. In 1907 Mehdi Rusi Khan, Mohammad ‘Ali Shah’s (1907–9) photographer, started to show films in his workshop. He was soon followed by Aqayof, Ardashir Khan and Esma‘ilof, who all started their own cinemas. 24 The next cinema (Jadid or Tajaddod) was opened in 1917 by 24 Adle,
2001 , pp. 183–7. 758 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN Ardashir Khan (Batmagriyan), who, like others, also arranged magic lantern shows. It had a seating capacity of 200, and musical accompaniments and snacks were provided. This cinema was closed in 1919. Films were then shown in hotels that charged low prices to attract customers. In 1925 another cinema was opened, with a separate hall for women. The first dedicated cinema was built by Morteza Qoli Khan Bakhtiyari in 1928; it was followed by another one in 1931. Cinemas also doubled as theatres because they had been equipped with theatrical technical facilities. 25 In 1932 an American visitor noted, ‘There are practically no places of amusement in Tehran except two moving-picture palaces. The walls of the halls are almost covered with antique wall-carpets.’ 26 This was an indication that cinema was becoming popular and as of 1935 the number of cinemas, including those in the provinces, increased. In 1931 a British author named Reitlinger attended a silent film show, which he described as follows: At Shiraz they were giving a film: the action took place in a Scottish baronial castle, with much old-world ribaldry about profiteers and faithless husbands on the Lido, popping of corks and chasing in and out of rooms. A compère described these events in Persian with the solemn sing-song of one reading the Koran. In the first row, rocking with merriment, was the lean ascetic form of the dervish who looked like Sa‘adi, and with him several members of the green-turbaned fraternity, the venerable descendants of the Prophet. 27 In the mid-1930s, cinema audiences ranged between 2,000 and 3,000 persons a day, which sometimes led to a price war between competing cinemas. A British female visitor opined in 1934: The cinema has made an enormous difference to the women of the towns. In some districts they sit on one side, the men on the other, but in Tehran they may sit together. The cinema gives them a new source of laughter, that fundamental need. [. . . ] The cinema, more than anything else, is making the women discontented and from that alone will come change. 28 In 1935 the cinema in Mashhad was attacked as part of clerical-led anti-government demonstrations. 29 In 1936 there were 12 or 13 cinemas in Tehran and 3 in Isfahan (one Armenian, one Indian, one Iranian), which were also much frequented by women. Some of these cinemas were open-air affairs. In that same year, a group of European students saw ‘Sunshine Susie and an excellent Charlie Chaplin, performed in the open air’ in Tehran. 30 An import permit was required from the Ministry of Commerce for each film projector. 25 For a very well-documented history of Iranian cinema, see Omid, 1377/1998 . 26 Miller, 1934
, p. 228. According to another visitor, at that time ‘The Rue Lalèzar boasts of several cine- mas’: Alexander, 1932 , p. 54.
27 Reitlinger, 1932 , p. 131. 28 Merrit-Hawkes, 1935 , p. 292. 29 Ettela‘at dar yek-rob‘-e qarn , 1329/1950, p. 139. 30 Emanuel,
1939 , pp. 271–2. 759 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN Occasionally foreign embassies would show cultural and/or propaganda films from their own countries, in which case they would rent the projector from one of the local cinemas, or hire the cinema itself. 31 During the 1940s the Russian and British governments both organized film shows in urban cinemas, but Britain also organized ‘travelling cinemas all round Persia, giving 16-mm shows at every town and large village on the main roads.’ 32 In the 1940s the social and political climate became freer and more relaxed, and mixed seating gradually became the norm. By the start of the 1960s, cinemas had become meeting-places for truants from school and teenage lovers, and in 1961 the government planted detectives among the audience to catch young offenders. In the 1950s and early 1960s film-going became so popular that cin- emas could no longer meet the demand. As a result, long queues formed outside. In 1962 the journal Rowshanfekr wrote that Tehran’s population of 2 million was spending as much as 230 million rials per month on visits to the cinema, not counting film shows at embassies and cinema clubs. 33 In 1963 Tehran had 74 public cinemas, each earning between 1 and 5 million rials a month. Whereas at the end of the 1950s only some 80,000 people a day went to the cinema, by 1963 this number had risen to 400,000. 34 However, there were frequent arguments between cinema owners and the authorities about their profits, their fiscal breaks, and the higher share demanded by the municipalities. When the cinema own- ers threatened to strike, the municipalities reacted by threatening to close them down. As a result, there was no strike and the cinema owners paid more taxes. In 1965 the annual number of cinema tickets sold in Tehran was 23 million; by 1968 it had risen to almost 36.5 million. Almost 45 per cent of the population in Tehran had been to the cinema, although those from high-income and educated groups (more than 75 per cent) were among the most regular film-goers. The number of cinemas also continued to grow, despite the increased competition from television. Nevertheless, films did well. 35 Most films were imported. The first talking film shown in Iran was in 1931. In 1956 a total of 298 films were imported, of which 167 were American. By 1961 this number had risen 31 Blücher, 1949 , p. 209; Byron, 1937 , p. 144 (German propaganda film in 1934). 32 For ‘cinema culture’ in Mashhad in 1943–5, see Skrine, 1962, p. 130 (Russian and British film programmes), p. 184 (British mobile film programme), p. 190 (British Council films), p. 195 (open-air cin- ema with British war films), p. 219 (Disney’s Fantasia; and a famous Indian film, Raj Nartiki). 33
, 22 Aug. 1962. 34 During that same period 94 new cinemas were built, encouraged by easy credit and tax breaks, which equalled the investment costs. Between 1954 and 1976 the number of cinemas in Tehran rose from 40 to 123, and in the provinces from 70 to 333. See: Echo of Iran, Iran Almanac 1968, p. 637; Echo of Iran, Iran Almanac 1971 , p. 635; Echo of Iran, Iran Almanac 1973, p. 131; Echo of Iran, Iran Almanac 1974, p. 131; Echo of Iran, Iran Almanac 1976, p. 112. 35 Echo of Iran, Iran Almanac 1970, p. 590; Echo of Iran, Iran Almanac 1974, p. 131. 760 Contents
Copyrights ISBN 92-3-103985-7 IRAN AND AFGHANISTAN to 1,020 imported foreign films, of which 506 were American, while 21 Iranian films were also shown. IRANIAN FILM-MAKING In 1899 Mozaffar al-Din Shah (1896–1907) bought a cinematographic camera. Mirza Ebrahim ‘Akkasbashi, the court photographer, was in charge. He shot the first extant Iranian film, which showed the Flower Festival at Ostende in August 1900. In Iran, cameras were used to film subjects such as the arrival of a train at Tehran station, the lions in the royal zoo, a group of mourners during Moharram (the Shi‘ite month of mourning) or comic pieces acted in the palace gardens. 36 After 1921 there were a few unimportant films; most Download 8.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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