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Classification of expressive means and stylistic devices by y. M
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2.2. Classification of expressive means and stylistic devices by y. M.
Skrebnev One of the brand new classifications of expressive ability and stylistic devices is given in the book "Fundamentals of English Stylistics" via Y. M. Skrebnev posted in 1994 (47). Skrebnev's approach demonstrates a aggregate of principles located in Leech's machine of paradigmatic and syntagmatic subdivision and the level-oriented approach on which Galperin's classification is founded. At the equal time it differs from both in view that Skrebnev managed to keep away from mechanical superposition of one machine onto every other and created a new regular method of the hierarchical arrangement of this material. Skrebnev starts offevolved with a holistic view, developing a kind of language pyramid. He would not pigeonhole expressive means and stylistic gadgets into excellent layers of language hke Leech and Galperin. Skrebnev first subdivides stylistics into paradigmatic stylistics (or stylistics of units) and syntagmatic stylistics (or stylistics of sequences). Then he explores the stages of the language and regards all stylistically relevant phenomena according to this level precept in both paradigmatic and syntagmatic stylistics. He also uniquely singles out one extra level. In addition to phonetics, morphology, lexicology and syntax he provides semasiology (or semantics). According to Skrebnev the relationship between these 5 levels and two aspects of stylistic evaluation is bilateral. The same linguistic material of these levels gives stylistic points studied by paradigmatic and syntagmatic stylistics. The difference lies in its one of a kind arrangement. Paradigmatic stylistics (Stylistics of units) two Morphology 3 Lexicology 4 Syntax 21 -> Syntagmatic -> stylistics -> (Stylistics of -> sequences) Paradigmatic stylistics Looking nearer into this device we'll be able to distinguish precise gadgets and their stylistic potentials or functions. Thus paradigmatic stylistics (stylistics of units) is subdivided into 5 branches. Paradigmatic phonetics definitely describes phonographical stylistic facets of a written text. Since we can't hear written speech but in our "mind" writers regularly resort to graphic capability to reproduce the phonetic peculiarities of man or woman speech or dialect. Such intentional non-standard spelhng is known as "graphons" (a term borrowed from V. A. Kucharenko). I recognize these Eye- talians! (Lawrence) - in this case the graphon is used to exhibit despise or contempt of the speaker for Italians. In Cockney speech whose phonetic peculiarities are all too properly regarded you may hear [ai] in area of [ei], [a:] as an alternative of [au], they drop "h's" and so on. It regularly will become a potential of speech characterisation and regularly creates a humorous effect. The writer illustrates it with a story of a cockney family making an attempt to impress a visitor with their "correct" English: "Father, said one of the youth at breakfast. - I choose some more 'am please".-You mustn't say 'am, my child, the correct form is 'am, - retorted his father, passing the plate with sliced ham on it. "But I did say 'am, pleaded the boy". "No, you didn't: you said 'am instead-of 'am". The mother turned to the guest smiling: "Oh, don't thought them, sir, pray. They are both making an attempt to say 'am and both suppose it is 'am they are saying" (47, p. 41). 22 Other graphic ability to emphasise the "unheard" phonetic charecter-istics such as the pitch of voice, the stress, and different melodic features are italics, capitalisation, repetition of letters, onomatopoeia (sound imitation). E.g. I AM sorry; "Аррееее Noooooyeeeeerr" (Happy New Year); cock-a-doodle- doo. Paradigmatic morphology observes the stylistic potentials of grammar forms, which Leech would describe as deviant. Out of quite a few varieties of morphological categorial types the writer chooses a less predictable or unpredictable one, which renders this structure some stylistic connotation. The extraordinary use of a wide variety of grammatical classes for stylistic functions may additionally serve as an ample example of this kind of expressive means. The use of a current stressful of a verb on the heritage of a past-tense narration got a unique title historic existing in linguistics. E. g. What else do I remember? Let me see. There comes out of the cloud our house... (Dickens) Another category that helps create stylistic colouring is that of gender. The end result of its deviant use is personification and depersonification. As Skrebnev factors out even though the morphological class of gender is virtually non-existent in cutting- edge English distinct rules difficulty complete classes of nouns that are traditionally related with feminine or masculine gender. Thus international locations are generally classed as feminine (France sent her representative to the conference.) Abstract notions related with strength and fierceness are personified as masculine while feminine is associated with splendor or gentleness (death, fear, war, anger - he, spring, peace, kindness - she). Names of vessels and different motors (ship, boat, carriage, coach, car) are handled as feminine. 23 Another deviant use of this category according to Skrebnev is the use of animate nouns as inanimate ones that he terms "depersonification" illustrated with the aid of the following passage: "Where did you discover it?" requested Mord Em'ly of Miss Gilliken with a satirical accent. "Who are you calling "it"?" demanded Mr. Barden aggressively. "P'raps you may kindly call me 'im and now not it". (Partridge) Similar instances of deviation on the morphological stage are given by using the creator for the categories of person, number, mood and some others. Paradigmatic lexicology subdivides English vocabulary into stylistic layers. In most works on this hassle (cf. books by using Galperin, Arnold, Vinogradov) all phrases of the national language are typically described in terms of neutral, literary and colloquial with further subdivision into poetic, archaic, foreign, jargonisms, slang, etc. Skrebnev makes use of one of a kind phrases for practically the equal purposes. His terminology consists of correspondingly neutral, effective (elevated) and poor (degraded) layers. Subdivision inner these categories is tons the equal with the exclusion of such organizations as bookish and archaic phrases and special phrases that Galperin, for example, includes into the exclusive literary vocabulary (described as advantageous in Skrebnev's system) whilst Skrebnev claims that they may additionally have each a effective and terrible styUstic characteristic relying on the cause of the utterance and the context. The equal consideration issues the so-called barbarisms or foreign words whose stylistic cost (elevated or degraded) depends on the sort of text in which they are used. To illustrate his point Skrebnev offers two examples of barbarisms used via people of different social classification and age. Used via an upper-class persona from John Galsworthy the word chic has a tinge of class displaying the character's information of French. He continues that Itahan phrases ciao and bambino 24 contemporary among Russian children at one time have been also viewed stylistically 'higher' than their Russian equivalents. At the identical time it is tough to say whether or not they must ah be classified as fine simply due to the fact they are of foreign origin. Each instance of use have to be regarded individually [10, p, 105]. Stylistic differentiation counseled through Skrebnev consists of the following stratification PositiveIelevated poetic; official; professional. Bookish and archaic words occupy a ordinary vicinity among the other high- quality phrases due to the truth that they can be located in any different team (poetic, professional or professional). Neutral NegativeIdegraded colloquial; neologisms; jargon; slang; nonce-words; vulgar words. Special point out is made of terms. The author continues that the stylistic characteristic of phrases varies in different sorts of speech. In non-professional spheres, such as literary prose, newspaper texts, every day speech one of a kind terms are related with socially prestigious occupations and consequently are marked as elevated. On the other hand the use of non-popular terms, unknown to the average speaker, shows a pretentious manner of speech, lack of taste or tact. Paradigmatic syntax has to do with the sentence paradigm: completeness of sentence structure, communicative sorts of sentences, phrase order, and type of syntactical connection. 25 Paradigmatic syntactical means of expression arranged in accordance to these 4 types include Completeness of sentence structure ellipsis; aposiopesis; one-member nominative sentences. Redundancy: repetition of sentence parts, syntactic tautology (prolepsis), polysyndeton. Word order Inversion of sentence members. Communicative types of sentences Quasi-affirmative sentences: Isn't that too bad? - That is too bad. Quasi-interrogative sentences: Here you are to write down your age and birthplace - How old are you? Where were you born? Quasi-negative sentences: Did I say a phrase about the money (Shaw) = I did not say... Quasi-imperative sentences: Here! Quick! = Come here! Be quick! In these sorts of sentences the syntactical formal that means of the structure contradicts the proper that means implied so that poor sentences study affirmative, questions do now not require answers however are in fact declarative sentences (rhetorical questions), etc. One communicative which means appears in disguise of another. Skrebnev holds that "the assignment of stylistic analysis is to discover out to what kind of speech (and its sublanguage) the given development belongs." (47, p. 100). Type of syntactic connection detachment; parenthetic elements; asyndetic subordination and coordination. 26 Paradigmatic semasiology deals with switch of names or what are traditionally regarded as tropes. In Skrebnev's classification these expressive potential obtained the time period primarily based on their capability to rename: figures of replacement. ALL figures of substitute are subdivided into 2 groups: figures of extent and figures of quality [11, p, 114]. Figures of quantity. In figures of extent renaming is based totally on inexactitude of measurements, in other words it's both pronouncing too a whole lot (overestimating, intensifying the properties) or too little (underestimating the size, value, importance, etc.) about the object or phenomenon. Accordingly there are two figures of this type. Hyperbole E. g. You couldn't hear your self suppose for the noise. Meosis (understatement, litotes). E.g. It's not unusual for him to come home at this hour. According to Skrebnev this is the most primitive type of renaming. Figures of first-class incorporate 3 kinds of renaming: • transfer primarily based on a real connection between the object of nomination and the object whose title it's given. This is referred to as metonymy in its two forms: synecdoche and periphrasis. E. g. I'm all ears; Hands wanted. Periphrasis and its sorts euphemism and anti-euphemism. E. g. Ladies and the worser halves; I in no way call a spade a spade, 1 name it a bloody shovel. " switch primarily based on affinity (similarity, no longer real connection): metaphor. Skrebnev describes metaphor as an expressive renaming on the basis of similarity of two objects. The speaker searches for associations in his mind's eye, the floor for comparison is no longer so open to view as with metonymy. It's greater complicated in 27 nature. Metaphor has no formal barriers Skrebnev maintains, and that is why this is now not a purely lexical stylistic gadget as many authors describe it (see Galperin's classification). This is a gadget that can involve a word, a section of a sentence or a complete sentence. We may add that whole works of artwork can be considered as metaphoric and an instance of it is the novel by means of John Updike "The Centaur". As for the sorts there are not just simple metaphors like She is a flower, however sustained metaphors, additionally known as extended, when one metaphorical assertion developing an photo is followed through any other linked to the previous one: This is a day of your golden opportunity, Sarge. Don't let it turn to brass. (Pendelton) Often a sustained metaphor offers rise to a device known as catachresis (or blended metaphor) - which consists in the incongruity of the components of a sustained metaphor. This occurs when objects of the two or greater components of a sustained metaphor belong to specific semantic spheres and the logical chain appears disconnected. The effect is commonly comical. E. g. "For somewhere", said Poirot to himself indulging an absolute rebel of combined metaphors "there is in the hay a needle, and among the napping dogs there is one on whom I shall put my foot, and by means of taking pictures the arrow into the air, one will come down and hit a glass-house!" (Christie) A Belgian talking English burdened a variety of popular proverbs and quotations that in fact look like the following: to seem for a needle in a haystack; to let snoozing dogs lie; to put one's foot down; I shot an arrow into the air (Longfellow); people who live in glass houses no longer throw stones. Other varieties of metaphor in accordance to Skrebnev also include Allusion defined as reference to a well-known historical, literary, mythological or biblical persona or event, typically known. E. g. It's his Achilles heel (myth of vulnerability). 28 Personification - attributing human homes to lifeless objects. E.g. How soon hath Time, the subtle thief of youth, Stol'n on his wing my three and twentieth year! (Milton) Antonomasia described as a variety of allusion, because in Skrebnev's view it's the use of the identify of a historical, literary, mythological or biblical personage applied to a person described. Some of the most famous ones are Brutus (traitor), Don Juan (lady's man). It have to be mentioned that this definition is only restricted to the allusive nature of this device. There is another approach (cf. Galperin and others) in which antonomasia also covers cases of transference of frequent nouns in location of proper names, such as Mr. Noble Knight, Duke the Iron Heart. Allegory expresses abstract thoughts through concrete pictures. E. g. The scales of justice; It's time to beat your swords into ploughshares. It should be noted that allegory is now not just a stylistic term, but also a time period of art in common and can be observed in different artistic forms: in painting, sculpture, dance, and architecture. • transfer by contrast when the two objects are adverse implies irony. Irony (meaning "concealed mоскеrу", in Greek eironeia) is a machine based on the opposition of that means to the experience (dictionary and contextual). Here we look at the greatest semantic shift between the idea named and the idea meant. Skrebnev distinguishes two sorts of ironic utterances: - needless to say explicit ironical, which no one would take at their face cost due to the situation, tune and structure. E. g. A fantastic pal you are! That's a exceptionally kettle of fish! - and implicit, when the ironical message is communicated against a wider context like in Oscar Wilde's story "The Devoted Friend" the place the actual that means of the title only turns into apparent after you study the story. On the complete irony is used 29 with the aim of fundamental assessment and the standard scheme is reward stands for blame and extraordinarily rarely in the reverse order. However when it does appear the time period in the latter case is astheism. E. g. Clever bastard! Lucky devil! One of the powerful strategies of reaching ironic impact is the combination of registers of speech (social patterns fabulous for the occasion): high-flown fashion on socially low topics or vice versa. Syntagmatic stylistics Syntagmatic stylistics (stylistics of sequences) offers with the stylistic features of linguistic devices used in syntagmatic chains, in linear combinations, not one by one but in connection with different units. Syntagmatic stylistics falls into the same level determined branches. Syntagmatic phonetics offers with the interaction of speech sounds and intonation, sentence stress, tempo. All these elements that characterise suprasegmental speech phonetically are on occasion additionally called prosodic [12, p, 189]. So stylistic phonetics studies such stylistic units and expressive capacity as alliteration (recurrence of the preliminary consonant in two or greater words in close succession). It's a usually English characteristic due to the fact historical English poetry was based totally more on alliteration than on rhyme. We discover a vestige of this once all-embracing literary system in proverbs and sayings that came down to us. E. g. Now or never; Last but now not least; As suitable as gold. With time its function broadened into prose and different sorts of texts. It grew to be very famous in titles, headlines and slogans. E. g. Pride and Prejudice. (Austin) Posthumous papers of the Pickwick Club. (Dickens) Work or wages!; Workers of the world, unite! 30 Speaking of the exchange of this device's function chronologically we must make extraordinary be aware of its prominence in certain expert areas of cutting-edge English that has now not been cited by means of Skrebnev. Today alliteration is one of the favourite devices of commercials and marketing language. E. g. New whipped cream: No mixing or measuring. No beating or bothering. Colgate toothpaste: The Flavor's Fresher than ever - It's New. Improved. Fortified. Assonance (the recurrence of harassed vowels). E.g. ...Tell this soul with sorrow laden, if inside the far away Aiden; I shall clasp a sainted maiden, whom the angels title Lenore. (Рое Paronomasia (using words similar in sound however exceptional in which means with euphonic effect) The popular example to illustrate this machine is drawn from E. A. Poe's Raven. E. g. And the raven, in no way flitting, nonetheless is sitting, still is sitting Rhythm and meter. The pattern of interchange of sturdy and vulnerable segments is known as rhythm. It's a ordinary recurrence of confused and unstressed syllables that make a poetic text. Various combos of burdened and unstressed syllables decide the metre (iambus, dactyl, trochee, etc.). Rhyme is another characteristic that distinguishes verse from prose and consists in the acoustic twist of fate of burdened syllables at the give up of verse lines. Here's an instance to illustrate dactylic meter and rhyme given in Skrebnev's book Take her up tenderly, Lift her with care, Fashion'd so slenderly Young and so fair. (Hood) Some new greater present day stylistic phrases appear in this connection-stylistic irradiation, heterostylistic texts, etc. We can take a look at this type of stylistic mixture in a passage from O'Henry supplied via Skrebnev [13,p, 154]: 31 Jeff, says Andy after a long time, pretty unseldom I have considered Jit to impugn your molars when you have been chewing the rag with me about your conscientious way of doing business... (47, p. 149). Syntagmatic syntax deals with extra familiar phenomena due to the fact it has to do with the use of sentences in a text. Skrebnev distinguishes simply syntactical repetition to which he refers parallelism as structural repetition of sentences even though regularly accompanied through the lexical repetition E. g. The cock is crowing, The circulate is flowing... (Wordsworth) and lexico-syntactical devices such as anaphora (identity of beginnings, preliminary elements). E. g. If only little Edward had been twenty, ancient sufficient to marry nicely and fend for himself, as an alternative often. If only it had been not essential to supply a dowary for his daughter. If only his very own money owed were less. (Rutherfurd) Epiphora (opposite of the anaphora, same elements at the cease of sentences, paragraphs, chapters, stanzas). E. g. For all averred, I had killed the bird. That made the breeze to blow. Ah wretch! Said they, the fowl to slay, That made the breeze to blow! (Coleridge) Framing (repetition of some component at the establishing and at the cease of a sentence, paragraph or stanza). E.g. Never wonder. By capability of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, settle the whole lot somehow, and never wonder. (Dickens) Anadiplosis (the final component of one sentence, paragraph, stanza is repeated in the preliminary phase of the next sentence, paragraph, stanza. E. g. Three fishers went sailing out into the West. Out into the West, as the solar went down. (Kingsley) 32 Chiasmus (parallelism reversed, two parallel syntactical constructions incorporate a reversed order of their members). E. g. That he sings and he sings, and for ever sings he - I love my Love and my Love loves me! (Coleridge) Figures of identity Simile (an specific announcement of partial identity: affinity, likeness, similarity of two objects). E. g. My coronary heart is like a singing bird. (Rosetti) Synonymous replacement (use of synonyms or synonymous phrases to keep away from monotony or as situational substitutes). E.g. He delivered domestic numberless prizes. He told his mom infinite stories. (Thackeray) E.g. I used to be trembly and shaky from head to foot. Figures of inequality Clarifying (specifying) synonyms (synonymous repetition used to characterise extraordinary factors of the same referent). E. g. You undercut, sinful, insidious hog. (O'Henry) Climax (gradation of emphatic factors growing in strength). E. g. What distinction if it rained, hailed, blew, snowed, cycloned? (O'Henry). Anti-climax (back gradation - as a substitute of a few factors growing in depth barring alleviation there suddenly seems a susceptible or contrastive aspect that makes the assertion humorous or ridiculous). E. g. The girl who should face the very satan himself or a mouse - goes all to pieces in the front of a flash of lightning. (Twain) Zeugma (combination of unequal, or incompatible phrases based totally on the financial system of syntactical units). E. g. She dropped a tear and her pocket handkerchief. (Dickens) 33 Pun (play upon phrases primarily based on polysemy or homonymy). E. g. What steps would you take if an empty tank were coming toward you ? - Long ones. Disguised tautology (semantic difference in formally coincidental components of a sentence, repetition here does not emphasise the thinking but carries a distinctive statistics in every of the two parts). E.g. For East is East, and West is West... (Kipling) Figures of contrast Oxymoron (a logical collision of seemingly incompatible words). E. g. His honour rooted in dishonour stood, And faith untrue saved him falsely true. (Tennyson) Antithesis (anti-statement, active disagreement of notions used to exhibit the contradictory nature of the concern described). E. g. It was once the nice of times, it was once the worst of times; it was the age of wisdom, it was once the age of foolishness, it was once the epoch of belief, it was the era of incredulity, it used to be the season of light, it was once the season of Darkness... Hope... Despair. (Dickens) His prices have been high, his classes have been light. (O'Henry) Download 321.58 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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