Integratsiya savollarga javoblar

10.Role play and discussion activities in teaching speaking skills. ( scenarios, dialogue).

11.Principles behind the teaching of listening. ( motivation, authentic language, listening strategies).
Answer:Topics, situations, notions and functions may differ in the ways outlined in the previous two units, but in principle the idea uniting them is a 'holistic' view of how bits of language should be presented to learners. Such a view emphasizes the importance of dealing with whole, meaningful chunks of language in context, rather than decontextualized items such as lists of vocabulary, or isolated examples of grammatical structures. It is, of course, possible to present notions and functions 'phrase-book' fashion as lists of isolated items (just as it is possible — and desirable — to teach grammar and vocabulary as used in communication); but it is, on the whole, more effective to teach them as samples of language used by people within a specific interactive situation.
This unit looks at some techniques of teaching such samples contextualized within texts.

Learning by heart

Learning by heart has been until recently rather frowned upon by teachers and educationists — and not only in the field of language teaching. This has been partly a reaction against the mindless rote-learning of previous generations of schoolchildren, associated with the discouragement of creative or original thinking and stress on the memorization of data such as multiplication tables, dates in history and passages from literature. Within language teaching, learning by heart has been associated with the audio-lingual methodology popular in in the 1960s but later rejected by most methodologists, which also emphasized learning through unthinking habit-forming and relied heavily on mimicry and memorization.
More recently, however, both within language teaching and in other areas of education, people are beginning to realize that learning by heart has value, and that it is quite compatible with creativity and originality of thought. Just as an automatic knowledge of the multiplication tables enables the young mathematician to progress faster into interesting problem-solving, so memorized chunks of language or formulaic utterances associated with particular communicative contexts furnish the learner with a rich and reliable 'vocabulary' of ready-made expressions which contribute significantly to his or her overall mastery of the language (Widdowson, 1989).Thus if we present our learners with samples of functions incorporated into situational dialogues, it makes sense to ask them to learn some of these by heart: provided, of course, that we consistently maintain their awareness of the meaning and purpose of what they are saying.
Learning texts by heart and then delivering them according to different interpretations is one way of engaging with samples of written or spoken language functions or situations. Another possibility — which may or may not be combined with learning by heart — is to take the basic text and elaborate on it.
Let us take the situation of two people meeting at some kind of social gathering and getting to know one another. The situation is presented to learners through an introductory spoken or written text: a dialogue between the new acquaintances, for example, or a narrative account of their meeting, or a diary entry by one of them describing the encounter. Language functions may include things like introducing oneself, informing, requesting information, expressing interest; topics and notions might include family, work, tastes, travel.
Rather than simply learning or answering comprehension questions on such texts, the class may be invited to vary and extend them, leading to further exploration of the kind of language being learned. They might, for example, either on their own or in collaboration with you, do one or more of the following:
— create a new text on a similar topic;
— suggest other ways the characters could have expressed the same notions or functions; what difference would these changes have made?
— suggest other ways the meeting might have developed, and how the characters might have expressed themselves; re-present the original text in a different way: if it was a diary entry, for example, then reconstruct the dialogue, or vice versa.
Teaching topics, situations, notions and functions through tasks and learnerinitiated language rather than through ready-made texts is another possible strategy. Methodologies based on this idea have been described by Prabhu (1987) and Willis (1990).
In such a methodology, the teacher has a syllabus of topics, but may or may not have ready-made texts or lists of actual language samples that are to be taught. The main initiative comes from the students. Thus in a lesson on personal appearance, for example, learners might be asked to start by working in pairs describing pictures of people before them; each participant has to drav\ people from the description provided by their partner. If they need new bits of language they teach each other or ask the teacher. (Notice that the teacher presentation of new language, as described in the first module, is still inevitabls with us, but the items to be presented grow out of learner need within a communicative situation rather than being predetermined by teacher, syllabus or textbook.) Later, the activity may be reported in the full class and the necessary language summarized, polished and elaborated — and later reviewed and practised. Also at a later stage, listening and reading texts may be brought in, but these are to consolidate or enrich the original task-based learning, rather than as a starting-point themselves.
One advantage of doing it this way is that the minds of teacher and students are from the outset firmly focussed on the 'holistic' language topic, whereas the use of a text as starting-point can lead to neglect of meaning and purpose in favour of analysis of grammar and vocabulary items — as you may have found it you did the task at the end of the previous unit. Another advantage is the 'authentic' flavour of the language-learning process: this is arguably how people learn languages when they are plunged into a foreign society, having to function in communicative situations, and learning as they go along, coping with a certain unpredictability of the language content that will be needed and learned
This unpredictability, however, can be a disadvantage: many teachers and learners like the sense of structure provided by a programme of language content which has been planned in advance and which they know they are going to have to work on. Also, a lot of initiative and sheer hard work is demanded of both teachers and learners in suggesting and then recalling or noting down the new language.