International and Cultural Psychology For other titles published in this series, go to
Cultural Insight and Knowledge Creation
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- Problem Solution with an emic approach WESTERN DATA Figure 10.1
- Building Models by Content Analysis of Scriptures
- Discovering or Mining Models from Scriptures
- THOUGHT DESIRE Person Thought Attachment Desire Anger Sense Objects Verse 2.59
- RAW MODEL POLISHED MODEL Unhappiness ATTACHMENT Figure 10.2
- RAW MODEL POLISHED MODE L
Cultural Insight and Knowledge Creation Bhawuk, (2008a, b) argued that knowledge creation starts with the effort to address human issues. Often, people use cultural insights to resolve issues or solve prob- lems facing a community. Thus, knowledge creation is necessarily culture bound and that is why all knowledge is cultural. Through socialization, cultural knowledge is transmitted from generation to generation. In Figure 10.1 , there is a solid box around human issues, cultural insight and wisdom, and problem solution with an emic approach encompassing this process. Early on, all issues are dealt with people who face them, i.e., problems are studied and solved by practitioners. Only with the growth of knowledge does the need to codify it grow, and with time research fields emerge. As societies and cultures develop complexity, people start placing issues into broad categories (e.g., social, political, economic, religious, business, scientific, techno- logical, and so forth), which are further broken down into narrower categories. We can see cultural differences in basic biological functions (e.g., eating, drinking, mating, and so forth) as well as in major life events like birth and death. Survival problems are resolved by culturally appropriate tools, which are often laden with generations of insights and wisdom. The weight of the lines of this box schematically represents the strength of the culture. Cultures found in Egypt, China, India, Iraq, Greece, and other such coun- tries have both celebrated the human spirit for years and survived thousands of years of human movement, interactions, and travail. Many of these cultures are ancient, and people in these cultures are very proud of their culture. The older the culture, the more the people are attached to their way of life and approach to solve human CULTURAL INSIGHTS & WISDOM HUMAN ISSUES PROBLEM SOLUTION WITH DISREGARD TO CULTURAL INSIGHT CREATION: PATH FOLLOWED BY COLONIZED CULTURES, AND BY WEAKER ECONOMIES IN THE FACE OF GLOBALIZATION Context-Free Universal Theories (GCF-ETICS) Universal Theories with Cultural Contexts (LCM-ETICS) ANECDOTES, QUALITATIVE OBSERVATIONS AND DATA EXISTING WESTERN THEORIES EXISTING CROSS-CULTURAL THEORIES CROSS-CULTURAL DATA EMIC Theory Building Problem solution Model Testing Diffusion of Cultural Practices Problem Solution with an emic approach WESTERN DATA Figure 10.1 Cultural insight and knowledge creation (adapted from Bhawuk, 2010) 188 10 Toward a New Paradigm of Psychology problems, and thus they are also more rigid about change (Hasegawa, 1995). It could be argued that such inflexibility is akin to the attitude found among researchers in major laboratories – what is “Not Invented Here” is not worth looking at. Early trade between various cultures did allow the flow of ideas, products, and practices from one part of the world to another. Thus, there was some degree of cultural diffusion represented by arrows around the box. However, the knowledge brokers were still primarily the idea leaders of a particular culture, usually the elders or people who held social power. This changed dramatically with colonization. The ideas, products, practices, and values of the colonizers came to be considered signifi- cantly superior to the native practices and values, and, of course, the colonizers’ military power facilitated this process. In the twentieth century, most human issues were couched into a Western worldview, and all problems were solved with a disre- gard to cultural insights. The failure of development projects in most parts of the world could be attributed to the export and forceful implementation of such counter- cultural ideas (Bhawuk 2001a; Bhawuk, Mrazek, & Munusamy, 2009). This process is identified by the dashed arrow going from the block of existing Western theories and Western data to human issues, and the second dashed arrow going from human issues to problem solutions that discard cultural insights. This could be labeled the colonial path to knowledge creation, which was followed by colonized cultures in the past and in the present time by weaker economies in the face of globalization. This is also true for cross-cultural theories and data in that the problem solution fol- lows the pseudoetic approach and still disregards the cultural insights. First colonization and now globalization is leading to the neglect of cultural knowledge and insights in research and knowledge creation. However, the growth in indigenous psychology, supported by cross-cultural psychology, has also led to the questioning of, and a severe criticism of, the colonial approach to knowledge creation. The model of knowledge creation presented in Figure 10.1 would help chan- nel cultural knowledge and wisdom back into the knowledge creation process. Research has been generally dominated by the Western rationalist worldview in which truth is pursued by quantifying and measuring variables of interest. However, a rationalist research paradigm can never resolve situations when two contradictory ideas seem to be simultaneously true, because in this paradigm only one solution can exist. Therefore, we need to go beyond the rationalist paradigm, and use not only multimethods within one paradigm, but also multiple paradigms – particularly those suggested by indigenous worldviews (Bhawuk, 2008a, b). This should help the study of human behavior in its cultural context and enable researchers to study issues that cannot be studied appropriately within the narrow confine of any one paradigm. The multiparadigmatic approach calls for the nurturing of indigenous research agenda. However, the leadership of the Western world in research and knowledge creation more often than not leads to starting with theoretical positions that are grounded in Western cultural mores. Thus, starting with a theoretical posi- tion invariably leads to the pseudoetic approach in which theories are necessarily Western emics. This can be avoided by starting with insights coming from folk wisdom or from classical texts in non-Western cultures. This process, starting with cultural insights 189 Discovering or Mining Models from Scriptures and examining other evidence (including anecdotes, qualitative observations, and data), leads to the development of emic-embedded theories and models, and by synthesizing such models with existing Western and cross-cultural theories and data, one should be able to develop context-free universal theories as well as uni- versal theories with cultural contexts, which could be called global theories for psychology, management, and other fields of human endeavor. Such an approach can expand the scope of research for Western and cross-cultural theories and in the long run will help in the search of general theories. Building Models by Content Analysis of Scriptures A content analysis of a religious or other such texts by using key words can lead to the development of models about constructs such as peace, spirituality, karma, dharma , identity, and so forth. This method was illustrated in Chapter 7 where a model with multiple paths for peace was developed. Also, in Chapter 8, karma was analyzed using this methodology. Thus, the methodology has promise. Future research could focus on other constructs like manas, buddhi, ahaGkAra, antaH- karaNa , kSamA (or forgiveness), karuNa (or compassion), and so forth, which can easily be studied following this approach. Discovering or Mining Models from Scriptures Sometimes models exist in the scriptures that need to be discovered or mined and polished to fit with the relevant literature. 3 For example, in Chapter 6, a process model of how desire and anger cause one’s downfall was derived from the second Canto of the bhagavadgItA (see Figure 6.1). The 62nd verse delineates this process by stating that when a person thinks (dhyAyataH) about objects (viSayAn), he or she 3 Both Vijayan and Anand do not think that “polishing” captures the spirit of what I am saying. Scriptures are known for offering their teaching in sutra (or aphorism) form where the beginning and end states are mentioned and the details of the process omitted. Often a commentator or bhASyakAr explicates the process sometimes by bringing other constructs and, at other times, by giving examples. What is being done in the polished model is similar to what a bhASyakAr does. For example, I explain how goal setting, a well-established psychological construct in Western psychology, mediates desires and anger. Anand thinks it may be better to call it an explicated model [Chandrasekar, Personal Communication (2009)]. Vijayan Munusamy [Personal Communication (2009)], on the other hand, noted that what is being done under the label of “pol- ished to fit” is akin to what is referred to as “theoretical sensitivity” in grounded theory when a researcher uses his or her personal and temperamental bent as well as theoretical insights to create a theory that fits the data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967, pp. 46–47). I think both perspectives together capture the process of polishing the model extracted from the scripture as the researcher is being a bhASyakAr and in being that brings his or her theoretical sensitivity to the process of polishing the extracted model. 190 10 Toward a New Paradigm of Psychology develops an attachment (saGga) to it. Attachment leads to desire (kAma), and from nonfulfillment of desire anger (krodha) is manifested. The 63rd verse further devel- ops this causal link by stating that anger leads to confusion (sammoha) or clouding of discretion about what is right or wrong, confusion to bewilderment (smRtivibh- rama ), to loss of memory or what one has learned in the past (smRtibhramza), to destruction of buddhi (i.e., intellect or wisdom), to the downfall of the person (praNazyati) or his or her destruction (see the block diagram in the top part of Figure 10.2 4 ). This causal model is as it is present in the bhagavadgItA, and since it is quite often cited in spiritual circles (or satsangs), it is not a secret and could hardly even be called a discovery. However, since the model has only recently made its entrance in psychological journals in India (Bhawuk, 1999) and internationally (Bhawuk 2008b), and since it is as yet to make an inroad in psychological textbooks, it is perhaps not an exaggeration to say that the model has finally been discovered by psychologists. What needs to be done is to further synthesize it with the extant psychological literature, which could be considered the polishing of the model. We need to be sensitive to the possibility of polishing what already exists in the scriptures, PERSON GOALS ANGER GREED NO YES THOUGHT DESIRE Person Thought Attachment Desire Anger Sense Objects Verse 2.59 5 Senses sammoha or Confusion smRtivibhram or Bewilderment BuddhinAz or Loss of Intellect praNazyati Downfall smRtibhraMza Loss of Memory RAW MODEL POLISHED MODEL Unhappiness ATTACHMENT Figure 10.2 Discovering or mining models from scriptures: a causal model of desire, anger, and self-destruction (adapted from Bhawuk, 2010) 4 There is some discussion in the literature about whether or not smRtivibhrama and smRtibhramZa are two concepts, especially since Adi zankara did not interpret them as two concepts in his commentary on the bhagavadgItA. I take the position that they are two different concepts; smRtiv- ibhrama originates from the root bhramati meaning wander, whereas smRtibhramZa is derived from the root bhras meaning destruction. Thus, smRtivibhrama means restlessness or unsteadiness of memory, or simply one is disarranged, bewildered, perplexed, or confused. On the other hand, smRtibhramZa means decline or decay of memory, or simply ruined memory. 191 Discovering or Mining Models from Scriptures without being irreverent because no idea is ever perfect and all ideas need to be made sense of in the context of the contemporary knowledge base for people to appreciate it. Thus, there should be no hesitation in attempting to polish such models. In what follows an attempt is made to polish this basic model from the bhagavadgItA in the light of current psychological knowledge. It is not explicated in the verse that desires lead to setting goals, which can be financial, academic, personal (health, how one looks, etc.), and so forth. Thus, desire is translated into behaviors, which are directed toward goals. Anger results when goals are not met. But when goals are met, desires are fulfilled; and in this case desires are unlikely to lead to anger. This truism is not stated in the verse. It seems reasonable that when goals are met, the person either moves on to some other goals or continues to pursue the behavior to obtain more of the same outcome or something higher or better. Therefore, greed 5 is the likely consequence of fulfill- ment of goals (Bhawuk, 1999). Both anger and greed are causes of unhappiness, and thus it could be argued that we have discovered a model of unhappiness. A schematic presentation of this process is captured in Figure 10.2 . The top part of the diagram is raw wisdom as presented in the bhagavadgItA, and the lower part of the diagram is an attempt to polish the model to synthesize current thinking in psychology. One could stop here or take another step and reverse the process of unhappiness, which could lead to a model of happiness (see Figure 7.1). Another example will help demonstrate this approach further. In verses 3.14 and 3.15 of the bhagavadgItA, a model that shows causal connection between yajna and human existence is presented. People are born of food, food is born of rain, rain is born of yajna, and yajna is born of karma (verse 3.14 6 ). karma is born of the vedas, the vedas are born of indestructible brahman (see Figure 10.3 ), and so the all pervading brahman is always present in yajna (verse 3.15 7 ). In the Indian worldview, yajna, where offerings 5 A question can be raised if fulfillment of goals invariably leads to greed, which is negative. What about ambition to excel in something or non-selfish goals like desire to help others? It is my understanding that all desires invariably lead to greed, since enlightenment means flowing with the universe and serving people without having any desire for oneself. The moment there is self, there is desire and, therefore, greed. The selfless person has no desire. The enlightened person has no desire, not even to fight for the freedom of nation. One would think that the pastors and min- isters of Christian churches are motivated by serving others, but research evidence shows that they have one of the highest rates of burnout among all professions (Chun, 2006; Grosch & Olsen, 2000). Clearly, too much of social service can also lead to stress and burnout. Other examples can be found in the scriptures. For example, arjuna’s desire to be the best archer led him to complain to guru droNa, which culminated in ekalavya losing his thumb. The contest between karNa and arjuna was a result of both trying to be the best archer of their time. So, excellence and ambition inherently lead to competition and result in greed sooner or later. 6 Verse 3.14: annAdbhavanti bhUtAni parjanyAdannasambhavaH; yajnAdbhavati parjanyo yaj- naH karmasamudbhavaH . 7 Verse 3.15: karma brahmodbhavaM viddhi brahmAkSarsamudbhavam; tasmAtsarvagataM brahma nityaM yajne pratiSThitam . 192 10 Toward a New Paradigm of Psychology are made to fire, is long viewed as the cause of rain 8 and the growth of plants, vegetables, and food. For example, in the manusmRti, it is also stated that the offering properly make to fire is placed in sun; sun causes rain, rain causes grains, and from grains come people. 9 The model can be reconstructed or polished as shown in the bottom panel of Figure 10.3 . brahman created the vedas, as the vedas are said to be apauruSeya (i.e., not written by a person), and karma and yajna come from the vedas. brahman is also present in yajna as stated in these verses. Though karma is said to precede yajna, brah- man is said to be present in yajna and not karma. Therefore, it may be better to show reciprocal relationship between yajna and karma and brahman as the cause of yajna. Again, the model as it is exists in the bhagavadgItA and is also supported in the manusmRti . To relate the model to work and organizations is what makes the model vedas karma yajna Rain Food People RAW MODEL POLISHED MODE L brahman brahman vedas karma yajna Rain Food People Figure 10.3 Discovering or mining models from scriptures: brahman, work, yajna, and living beings (adapted from Bhawuk, 2010) 8 A friend noted if this entire argument or model should find a place in the paper. He thought that while what kRSNa said must have made perfect sense to the people of his time, concepts like yajnAd bhavati parjanyaH are difficult for the modern mind to accept. I thought similarly, so I can relate to the argument. During my sabbatical in New Zealand in October 2002, I was studying the bhagavadgItA , and one day I thought that yajna could not cause rain. And that same day, a visiting anthropologist happened to present about Native Americans’ practice of going in solitude to pray for rain and doing what is referred to as rain dance. After his presentation, I asked him if he believed the shamans predicted rain or made rain, and he responded that what he believed did not matter. The Native Americans believed that the shamans made rain. I stopped questioning the connection between rain and yajna from that point on. More recently in October 2009, I was read- ing the biography of Sri Ramana Maharshi (Osborne, 1970), and I came across a story that sup- ports such mystical connection between yajna and rain. “The mystery of Arunachala Hill also has become more accessible. There were many formerly who felt nothing of its power, for whom it was just a hill of rock and earth and shrubs like any other. Mrs. Taleyarkhan, a devotee mentioned in the previous chapter, was sitting once on the hill with a guest of hers, talking about Sri Bhagavan. She said: “Bhagavan is a walking God and all our prayers are answered. That is my experience. Bhagavan says this hill is God Himself. I cannot understand all that, but Bhagavan says so, so I believe it.” Her friend, a Muslim in whom the courtly Persian traditions of culture still lingered, replied, “According to our Persian beliefs I would take it as a sign if it rained.” Almost immediately there was a shower and they came down the hill drenched to tell the story (Osborne, 1970, p. 192).” Thus, I am open to the correlation between prayer or yajna and rain. 9 agnau prAstAhutiH samyagAdityamupatiZThate; AdityAjjAyate vRSTirvRSTerannaM tataH prajAH (Manusmriti 3.76). The offering given properly to fire is placed in Sun; Sun causes rain, rain causes grains, and from grains come people. 193 Recognition of What Works in Indigenous Cultures relevant to psychology. yajna is interpreted to include not only the ritual offering to fire but also all activities that keep the universe running, and in that sense it is inclu- sive of all kinds of work done by all beings. Thus, work is glorified to be always permeated by God, and thus doing any work is of the highest order. However, if it is done with passion and attachment it is a sin, and if it is done without attachment, then it frees one of all bondage. Thus, work is couched in a spiritual worldview (see Chapter 8 for full discussion) and if done properly without pursuing their outcomes it becomes a path leading to mental purity, which in turn leads to self-realization. By comparing the insights in the model with ideas found in other cultures, its generalizability can be at least theoretically examined. As noted in Chapter 8, the doctrine of niSkAma karma postulated in the bhagavadgItA is also supported in the Christian faith, 10 and the convergence of these ideas should be taken as natural experiments occurring in different cultures confirming the same human insight if not truth. These two examples demonstrate how the scriptures are like mines full of gems of psychological models that can be easily extracted and polished. Much research has been done on aggression in the West, but the insight presented in the model in Figure 10.2 brings one face to face with the source of aggression, and therein lies the solution to anger. Similarly, much can be learned about the nature of work using the model in Figure 10.3 . It is also clear that building models from indigenous insights allows one to accommodate the Western theory and models, and also contribute to the global psychology. Download 3.52 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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