Introduction to management

Fixed ratio schedule: The difference between interval and ratio is that the 

critical value is time in the former case and the number of responses in the 

 

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latter. The reinforcement is initiated after getting a fixed number of 

responses. For example, reinforcement is fixed after twenty responses. 

Rewards attached to the output also follow a case fixed ratio schedule. The 

response of wage is linked to the reinforcement of output. Reinforcement 

is given after a certain number of responses. If the reward is paid with the 

response, employees try to have a larger number of responses to get the 

reward. Bonus linked with productivity is a very good example of fixed 

ratio reinforcement. 

Variable ratio schedule: Reinforcement varies with the response and is 

not in a fixed ratio. Reward varies from individual to individual in case of 

the variable ratio schedule. Reinforcement is not fixed to the number of 

stimuli. It varies from individual to individual, depending upon their levels 

of personality. Fixed ratio reinforcement may produce different responses 

because of different levels of understanding of employees. Variable 

reinforcements based on different levels of personality are expected to 

produce almost similar responses. The fixed and variable interval as well 

as fixed and variable ratio provides opportunities for modification and 

development of behaviour. Any schedule of reinforcement is not 

foolproof. Every reinforcement has its advantages and disadvantages. 

Therefore, considering the environment and level of employees, 

reinforcement schedule will be selected. Continuous reinforcement is 

useful for newly appointed employees with unstable and low frequency 

responses. It provides early satisfaction, but fades with the withdrawal of 

 

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reinforcement. Intermittent reinforcement is effective with stable and high 

frequency responses. A variable schedule gives better results and high 

performances than the fixed schedule. A variable interval schedule 

provides opportunities for high responses and more stable and consistent 

behaviour because of the uncertainty involved. Employees tend to behave 

sincerely because an element of surprise is involved in variable schedule. 

19.8 VALUES 

Employees have certain values in life. They view life from different angles which 

are reflected in their work performance. Learning helps them to develop high 

values towards their jobs and the organisation. Values refer to the basic 

convictions, which lead to formation of conduct or social preferences. Values are 

a combination of different attitudes and attributes of individuals. They help 

employees decide what is right, good, desirable, and favourable and so on. One 

value may be useful for a person, but may not be effective for others. The 

intensity attributes or value system has relative importance. Values are a code of 

conduct developed by an individual and the social system. Honesty, self-respect, 

equality, sincerity, obedience, truthfulness, etc. are various examples of values. 

Values are significant in organisational behaviour. Employees behave properly if 

they give importance to values. Learning may help provide opportunities for 

development of values. Employees would be aware of what ought to be done or 

what ought not to be done by giving importance to values. Behaviour is modified 

only if people are aware of right or wrong things, which are the deciding 

components of values. Learning aims to develop values so that employees can 

 

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perform and behave properly. Values influence objectives too, because values 

shape the attitude and behaviour of employees. For example, obedient employees 

perform efficiently without creating any problems for the management 

Disciplined employees feel directed towards objectives. Learning helps 

employees develop high values and favourable behaviour. 

19.8.1 SOURCES OF VALUES 

People develop values from different sources, e.g. parents, friends, teachers, 

society, religion, workplace and national characteristics. Parents are the initiators 

of values. Mother and father always tell us what is right or what is wrong. They 

ask their children to do right things and avoid wrong things. Every family has 

certain values, which are inculcated in the children. Brothers and sisters play 

significant roles in developing values. Parental guidance paves the value systems 

on which children develop their attitude and behaviour. That is why it is said that 

children of a good family will be good and hard workers. Children in their 

attitudes and behaviour incorporate parent’s talk about society, friends, nations 

and work values, and these values. Friends influence each other to resort to 

particular behaviour. Good company helps develop good values. Teachers teach 

several good values to be adopted by students. Teachers are real instructors of 

value to learners. Society has a great impact on shaping the inter-behaviour of 

people, which provides value formation. Club members encourage (Different 

values depending upon their respective characters. Values are learnt and 

developed through religious factors. God, universe, fortune and suffering are 

attached to value application in behaviour. For example, righteous behaviour 

 

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pleases god and vice-versa. A pleased god showers fortune and a displeased god 

give suffering, as per several examples of religious and cultural beliefs. Indian 

society believes that good values are related to godly pleasure, which give 

satisfaction to people. Workplaces teach honesty, responsibility, diligence, 

endurance and so on. People should be honest and responsible while performing a 

job. Good values have become strong forces for good behaviour whereas bad 

values destroy social and economic ties. Misery, suffering and dissatisfaction are 

associated with bad values. Good values give satisfaction as they help one to 

perform better. National characters have a great impact on the values exercised by 

the people. Warring nations have been developing warring and fighting values as 

real factors for satisfaction. Peace-loving nations develop peace values in people. 

Based on different sources of value formation, values are different. Learning 

strengthens good values and avoids bad values through positive and negative 

reinforcements respectively. The social learning process helps in developing 

various types of values. 

19.8.2  TYPES OF VALUES 

Values may be of different types, depending upon their sources of formation, 

namely family values, economic values, social values, religious values and 

national values. Family values preach methods of living in a family. The 

behaviour of family members with each other depends on the values developed. 

For example, the relationship between parents and children, brother and sister and 

so on have certain behavioural values. A father will treat his children 

affectionately. Similarly, children are expected to honour and respect their 

 

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parents. There are different family values, which are bases of satisfaction and 

happiness in the family. Economic values give importance to money, financial 

resources and property formation. If an employee is unable to develop himself 

and his family, he has not given due importance to economic values. In the 

modem age, people recognise economic values more than other values. Economic 

well being is considered a symbol of status and satisfaction. Social values refer to 

the methods of behaviour in society. Social recognition and social satisfaction are 

related to social values. If a friend helps other friends, he values friendship and 

selflessness. Religious values are often observed in India where large sections of 

the people are governed by religious values and acceptances. Religious leaders 

shape lives of people through the preaching of religious values such as having 

faith in god, non-interference in others' lives, job fulfillment, being active, non-

attachment, etc. The aim of life is told to them and this incorporates several 

relevant values to shape the behaviour of people. It is also referred to as a terminal 

value. People practice instrumental values for the development of family and 

society. Values at the workplace are covered under economic values, whereas 

values of behaviour accepted in the organisation are known as instrumental 

values. For achieving satisfaction, National values are preached by national 

leaders. Mahatma Gandhi preached some significant values to the people of the 

nation. Truth and nonviolence were the two important values preached by him. 

Different values are attached to particular generations. The modem generation 

below the age of 30 is freer, leisure-minded, and flexible and so on. Learning 

programmes should be designed in such a way that the employees can develop 

 

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high values for corporate development and their satisfaction as well. Instrumental 

values of honesty, responsibility, ambition, courage and independence may 

achieve the terminal values of self-respect, security, accomplishment, happiness 

and self-satisfaction. Older people are conservative, loyal and quality-oriented 

whereas the younger generation is flexible, leisure liking and believes in building 

up relations. Good values are to be explored, initiated and developed for the 

modification of performance behaviour in an organisation. Learning has a great 

role to play in achieving this objective. 

19.9 SUMMARY 

Learning is a self-development process. People are interested in self-development. 

Self-analysis, appraisal and improvement help to learn and acquire the required 

behaviour. Reinforcement has a major role in the learning process. Further, the 

human species, unlike animal possess an extremely high proportion of unused 

mental capacity at birth. Human being has very few instincts or innate response 

tendencies relative to lower animals. While this may be detrimental to man in the 

sense that he is helpless for a long period in his early years, it is favorable in the 

sense that he has greater capacity for adaptation in response to changed survival 

conditions. This is because of his learning capacity. As such, learning becomes an 

important concept in the study of human behaviour. 

19.12 SELF-TEST QUESTIONS 

1. 

Analyse the role of learning theory for understanding human behaviour. 

2. 

Discuss the nature of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. What 

are the differences between these? 

3. 

What is reinforcement? Discuss its use in organisation. 

 

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4. 

Discuss the learning process in an organisation. 

5. 

Explain the importance of values and reinforcement for learning process. 

19.13 SUGGESTED READINGS 

1. 

Elton Mayo, the Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization, Macmillan 

Publishing Company, New York. 

2. 

Keith Davis, Human Behaviour at Work, Tata McGraw Hill, New Delhi. 

3. 

Laurie J. Mullins, Management and Organisational Behaviour (2

nd

 ed.), Pitman. 

4. 

Fred Luthans, Organisational Behaviour (8

th

 ed.), Irvin/Tata McGraw Hill. 

5. 

Stephen P. Robbins, Organisational Behaviour (9th ed.), Prentice Hall India. 

6. 

Earnest R. Hilgard and Gordon Power, Theories of Learning, Prentice Hall. 

 

 

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INTERPERSONAL BEHAVIOUR 

Objective:   The objective of this lesson is to make the students learn 

about the concept of interpersonal behaviour and its different 

forms. 

Lesson Structure 

20.1  Background  

20.2  Dynamics of Human Inter Personal Behaviour 

20.3  Assertive Behaviour: Components and Techniques 

20.4  Interpersonal Behaviour at Glance 

20.5  Self Assessment Questions 

20.6 Suggested Readings 

 

 

20.1 BACKGROUND  

The basis of our relationships, our loves, hates, commitments and duties 

make us what we are. These human bonds - complex, universal and so 

much a part of our daily existence, whether on a personal or sociopolitical 

level, are largely responsible for the quality of our lives and thoughts, and 

not the least, our mental health. Schools, colleges and other learning 

institutions enlighten us on a variety of subjects and equip us to "face life" 

economically, socially and intellectually. However, there is no school 

which educates us about ourselves and the ways in which to conduct 

ourselves in the multitude of relationships that we are called upon to engage 

in from day to day: child and parent, brother and sister, student and teacher, 

Subject: Management Concepts and Organizational Behaviour 

Subject Code: MC-101 

 

 

        Author: Dr. Karam Pal 

Lesson No: 20 

 

 

 

  

Vetter: Prof. M. S. Turan 

 

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employee and boss, servant and master to mention a few. Each one of us 

learns this independently, through trial and error and eventually develops 

certain typical ways of coping with people and situations. 

In the course of our routine interactions, we all have had the experience, 

some time or the other of facing conflict. Even in our daily interactions 

with parents, friends, strangers and relatives, we are often faced with the 

dilemma of either expressing our feelings honestly and directly, thereby 

running the risk of hurting them and losing their affection and thoughts, and 

thereby creating uncomfortable undercurrents of hostility and resentment in 

the relationship. 

Is it all right to express anger, when one's personal rights are violated, or 

should one simply keep quiet? How does one express anger without 

breaking off a relationship? Does one protest when cheated or manipulated, 

or overlook it? How does one handle an insolent clerk at the Post Office? 

How does one handle continual nagging at home, or sugar coated putdown 

outside, and the endless number of irritant that we encounter in our 

relationships without completely hassled or fazed? These are some of the 

interpersonal dimensions, which have been attempted in this lesson. Section 

I of this lesson will focus on the dynamics of human interpersonal 

behaviour i.e. the different ways in which we cope with people and 

situations. The concepts of Fight and Flight, Non Assertiveness, 

Assertiveness and Aggressiveness will be discussed, followed by 

manipulative coping. There will be a brief discussion on the role of anger 

and the difference between anger and aggression. Section II will define 

Assertive Behavior and examine in a little detail the components of 

assertiveness and some techniques of assertive behaviour. And finally 

Section III will look at assertiveness at a glance. 

20.2   DYNAMICS OF HUMAN INTER PERSONAL BEHAVIOUR 

 

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One of the causes of stress is the inability to cope with conflict in 

interpersonal relations. Almost all of us, at some time or the other has 

experienced the feeling of "being stumped for words", (tongue tied)" not 

being able to say the right thing at the right time", or “blowing our top" 

when our emotions overcome us. At these times, we are out of control of 

ourselves. When this feeling of being out of control persists for a long time, 

it manifests itself in bodily complaints such as headaches, general fatigue, 

stomach disturbances, rashes and asthma. 

The Fight and Flight Response

 

How do people generally react, when faced with a conflict? Surprisingly, 

not very different from animals! Have you ever seen a cat when cornered? 

Its whole body becomes stiff, eyes dilate, tail stands on edge, hairs stand 

up, and it starts emitting strange sounds. This is called fight response, and 

may also be termed as `instinctive', `survival', or `protective'. Although 

slightly modified in present day civilized person, this response is still very 

much visible in for example the irate, defensive mother-in-low who wants 

to vindicate herself before her son, or to take a more common example the 

bus conductor, who in a loud aggressive voice states that he does not have 

change. 

On the other hand, individuals (and so also animals) may opt for the flight 

response, wherein the organism simply `takes to its heels'. Again its 

manifestation in modern person is seen in the individual who 

procrastinates, avoids taking stands, and is constantly eluding or running 

away from trying or problematic situations, for example, avoiding a friend 

whom you had promised something, by taking the easy way out: just 

not being available. 

The fight and flight responses are built into our systems and are 

automatically triggered off, in certain situations. They are usually 

 

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associated with the emotions of fear, anger/frustration, and they were of 

immense value to our ancestors (e.g. to run as fast as possible, on seeing 

some danger in the form of a predatory animal) because you didn't have to 

think. It just happened. The very emotion of fear/rage, by reflexaction, 

aroused the survival instincts, preparing them for fight or flight as the case 

may be. 

However the main difference between human beings and animals is that 

while the latter have only two sets of responses- Fight and Flight, humans 

have a third option, that is, verbal problem solving ability. But, the Fight 

and Flight responses when carried to an extreme prevent us from exercising 

our third option of verbal problem solving. How does this happen? Manuel 

J. Smith explains . . . Most of our conflicts and problems come from other 

people and in dealing with other people, our primitive response are 

insignificant, in comparison with our uniquely human coping ability of 

verbal assertive problem solving. Anger-fight and fear-flight actually 

interferes with this verbal coping ability. When you become angry or 

afraid, your primitive lower brain centres shut down much to the operation 

of your new human brain. The blood supply is automatically rerouted away 

from your brain and gut to your skeletal muscles to prepare them for 

physical action. Your human problem solving brain is inhibited from 

processing information. When you  get angry or afraid, you just don't 

think clearly or efficiently.  

 

Non Assertive, Assertive, and Aggressive Behaviour 

There are three possible broad approaches to the conduct of interpersonal 

relations. The first is to consider one' self only and ride roughshod over 

others ... The second ... is always to put others before one's self .... The third 

 

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approach is the golden mean. The individual places himself first, but takes 

others into account.  

- Joseph Wolpe 

Robert Alberti and Michael Emmons distinguish between three types of 

coping behaviours: Non Assertive, Assertive and Aggressive 

Non-Assertiveness 

An appeaser is one who feeds a crocodile, hoping it will eat him last.  

- Sir Winston Churchill 

Non-Assertive behaviour is somewhat similar to the flight response, in that 

fear stimulating situations; automatically generate inhibited behaviour in 

the individual concerned. The non-assertive person will not stand up for his 

own rights, even where it is justified. They are usually at a loss for words, 

hesitate to express their opinions, thoughts, or needs clearly and allow 

others to decide for them. They become anxious, and are always giving in 

to requests - even obviously unreasonable ones - are without confidence 

when criticized  though they make half hearted attempts to defend 

themselves, and on the whole they are not very happy or satisfied people, 

because they are always going out of their way to please others, at the cost 

of self. 

The individual who cannot refuse requests, or say `No' without feeling 

guilty, hesitates to displease others, to express opinions which differ from 

others, is easily persuaded by girl salespersons into buying things which 

they do not need or want; the employee who is afraid to assert herself 

before her bullying husband, are all examples of non assertive behaviour. 

Alberti and Emmons distinguish between general non-assertiveness and 

situational non-assertiveness. The generally non-assertive person is one 

 

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with very low self-esteem. He has a deep feeling of inadequacy, lack of 

acknowledgement of self worth, and usually suffers from actual physical 

discomforts brought on by extreme anxiety. The situationally non assertive 

person is on the whole able to cope with people and situations, but certain 

situations generate mush anxiety in them: the student who can get along 

well with classmates and people in general, but shivers when they have to 

face authority figures, like the principal.