Introduction to management

Physical Demands The physical demands of a job are its physical 

requirements on the worker; these demands are a function of the physical 

characteristics of the setting and the physical tasks the job involves.  One 

important element is temperature.  Working outdoors in extreme 

temperatures can result in stress, as can working in an improperly heated or 

cooled office.  Strenuous labor such as loading heavy cargo or lifting 

packages can lead to similar results.  Office design also can be a problem.  

A poorly designed office can make it difficult for people to have privacy or 

promote too much or too little social interaction.  Too much interaction 

may distract a person from his or her task, whereas too little may lead to 

boredom or loneliness.  Likewise, poor lighting, inadequate work surfaces, 

and similar deficiencies can create stress. 

 

 

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Role Demands  Role demands also can be stressful to people in 

organizations.  A role is a set of expected behaviors associated with a 

particular position in a group or organization.  As such, it has both formal 

(i.e., social and implicit) requirements.  People in an organization or work 

group expect a person in a particular role to act in certain ways.  They 

transmit these expectations both formally and informally.  Individuals 

perceive role expectations with varying degrees of accuracy, and then 

attempt to enact that role.  However, "errors" can creep into this process, 

resulting in stress-inducing problems called role ambiguity, role conflict, 

and role overload. 

 

Role ambiguity arises when a role is unclear.  If your instructor tells you to 

write a term paper but refuses to provide more information, you will 

probably experience ambiguity.  You do not know what the topic is, how 

long the paper should be, what format to use, or when the paper is due.  In 

work settings, role ambiguity can stem from poor job descriptions, vague 

instructions from a supervisor, or unclear cues from coworkers.  The result 

is likely to be a subordinate who does not know what to do.  Role 

ambiguity can thus be a significant source of stress. 

 

Role conflict occurs when the message and cues from others about the role 

are clear but contradictory or mutually exclusive.  One common form is 

interrole conflict -- conflict between roles.  For example, if a person's boss 

says that to get ahead one must work overtime and on weekends, and the 

same person's spouse says that more time is needed at home with the 

family, conflict may result.  Intra-role conflict may occur when the person 

gets conflicting demands from different sources within the context of the 

same role.  A manager's boss may tell her that she needs to put more 

pressure on subordinates to follow new work rules.  At the same time, her 

 

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subordinates may indicate that they expect her to get the rules changes.  

Thus, the cues are in conflict, and the manager may be unsure about which 

course to follow. 

 

Intra-sender conflict occurs when a single source sends clear but 

contradictory message.  This might occur if the boss says one morning that 

there can be no more overtime for the next month but after lunch tells 

someone to work late that same evening.  Person-role conflict results from 

a discrepancy between the role requirements and the individual's personal 

values, attitudes, and needs.  If a person is told to do something unethical or 

illegal, or if the work is distasteful (for example, firing a close friend), 

person-role conflict is likely.  Role conflict of all varieties is of particular 

concern to managers.   

 

A final consequence of a weak role structure is role overload, which occurs 

when expectations for the role exceed the individual's capabilities.  When a 

manager gives an employee several major assignments at once while 

increasing the person's regular workload, the employee will probably 

experience role overload.  Role overload may also result when an 

individual takes on too many roles at one time.  For example, a person 

trying to work extra hard at his job, run for election to the school board, 

serve on a committee in church, coach Little League baseball, maintain an 

active exercise program, and be a contributing member to his family will 

probably encounter role overload. 

 

Interpersonal Demands.  A final set of organizational stressors consists of 

three interpersonal demands:  Group pressures, leadership, and 

interpersonal conflict.  Group pressures may include pressure to restrict 

output, pressure to conform to the group's norms, and so forth.  For 

 

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instance, as we have noted before, it is quite common for a work group to 

arrive at an informal agreement about how much each member will 

produce.  Individuals who produce much more or much less than this level 

may be pressured by the group to get back in line.  In individual who feels a 

strong need to vary from the group's expectations (perhaps to get a pay 

raise or promotion) will experience a great deal of stress, especially if 

acceptance by the group is also important to him or her. 

Leadership style also may cause stress.  Suppose an employee needs a great 

deal of social support from his leader.  The leader, however, is quite 

brusque and shows no concern or compassion for him.  This employee will 

probably feel stressed.  Similarly, assume an employee feels a strong need 

to participate in decision making and to be active in all aspects of 

management.  Her boss is very autocratic and refuses to consult 

subordinates about anything.  Once again stress is likely to result. 

 

Finally, conflicting personalities and behaviors may cause stress.  Conflict 

can occur when two or more people must work together even though their 

personalities, attitudes, and behaviors differ.  For example, a person with an 

internal locus of control - that is, who always wants to control how things 

turn out - might get frustrated working with an external person who likes to 

wait and just let things happen.  Likewise, a smoker and a nonsmoker who 

are assigned adjacent offices obviously will experience stress.  The working 

with Diversity box describes another example of how interpersonal 

demands - in the form of harassment - can result in stress. 

 

Life Stressors 

Stress in organizational settings also can be influenced by events that take 

place outside the organization.  Life stressors generally are categorized in 

terms of life change and life trauma. 

 

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Life Change Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahe first developed and 

popularized the notion of life change as a source of stress.  A life change is 

any meaningful change in a person's personal or work situation.  Holmes 

and Rahe reasoned that major changes in a person's life can lead to stress 

and eventually to disease. The study summarizes their findings on major 

life change events.  Note that several of these events relate directly (fired 

from work, retirement) or indirectly (change in residence) to work. 

 

Life Trauma. Life trauma is similar to life change, but it has a narrower, 

more direct, and shorter-term focus.  A life trauma  is any upheaval in an 

individual's life that alters his or her attitudes, emotions, or behaviour.  To 

illustrate, according to the life change view, a divorce adds to a person's 

potential for health problems in the following year.  At the same time, the 

person will obviously also experience emotional turmoil during the actual 

divorce process.  This turmoil is a form of life trauma and will clearly cause 

stress, much of which may spill over into the workplace. 

 

Major life traumas that may cause stress include marital problems, family 

difficulties, and health problems initially unrelated to stress.  For example, 

suppose a person learns she had developed arthritis that will limit her 

favorite activity, skiing.  Her dismay over the news may translate into stress 

at work.  Similarly, a worker going through a family breakup will almost 

certainly go through difficult periods, some of which will affect his or her 

job performance. 

 

22.4   EFFECTS OF STRESS 

Stress can have a number of consequences.  As we already noted, if the 

stress is positive, the result may be more energy, enthusiasm, and 

 

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motivation.  Of more concern, of course, are the negative consequences of 

stress.  Referring back to our discussion in this lesson, we see that stress 

can produce individual effects, organizational effects, and burnout. 

 

We should first note that many of the factors listed are obviously 

interrelated.  For example, alcohol abuse is shown as an individual effects, 

but it also affects the organization the person works for  an employee who 

drinks on the job may perform poorly and create a hazard for others.  If the 

category for a consequence seems somewhat arbitrary, be aware that each 

effects are categorized according to the area of its primary influence. 

 

 

Individual Effects 

The individual effects of stress, then, are the outcomes that mainly affect 

the individual.  The organization also may suffer, either directly or 

indirectly, but it is the individual who pays the real price.  Stress may 

produce behavioral, psychological, and medical effects. 

 

Behavioural Effects The behavioral effects of stress may harm the person 

under stress or others.  One such behavior is smoking.  Research has clearly 

documented that people who smoke tend to smoke more when they 

experience stress.  There is also evidence that alcohol and drug abuse are 

linked to stress, although this relationship is less well documented.  Other 

possible behavioral consequences are accident proneness, violence, and 

appetite difficulties.   

Psychological Effects  The psychological effects of stress relate to a 

person's mental health and well-being.  When people experience too much 

stress at work, they may become depressed or find themselves sleeping too 

 

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much or not enough.  Stress may also lead to family problems and sexual 

difficulties. 

 

Medical Effects  The medical effects of stress affect a person's physical 

well-being.  Heart disease and stroke, among other illnesses, have been 

linked to stress.  Other common medical problems resulting from too much 

stress include headaches, backaches, ulcers and related stomach and 

intestinal disorders, and skin conditions such as acne and hives. 

 

Organizational Effects  

Clearly, any of the individual effects just discussed can also affect the 

organization.  Other results of stress have even more direct consequences 

for organizations.  These include decline in performance, withdrawal, and 

negative changes in attitudes.   

 

Performance    One clear organizational effects of too much stress is a 

decline in performance.  For operating workers, such a decline can translate 

into poor-quality work or a drop in productivity.  For managers, it can mean 

faulty decision making or disruptions in working relationships as people 

become irritable and hard to get along with. 

 

Withdrawl  Withdrawal behaviors also can result from stress.  For the 

organization, the two most significant forms of withdrawal behavior are 

absenteeism and quitting.  People who are having a hard time coping with 

stress in their jobs are more likely to call in sick or consider leaving the 

organization for good.  Stress can also produce other, more subtle forms of 

withdrawal.  A manager may start missing deadlines or taking longer lunch 

breaks.  An employee may withdraw psychologically by ceasing to care 

about the organization and the job.  As noted above, employee violence is a 

 

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potential individual consequence of stress.  This also has obvious 

organizational implications as well, especially if the violence is directed an 

employee or at the organization in general. 

 

Attitudes  Another direct organizational effect of employee stress relates to 

attitudes.  As we just noted, job satisfaction, morale, and organizational 

commitment can all suffer, along with motivation to perform at high levels.  

As a result, people may be more prone to complain about unimportant 

things, do only enough work to get by, and so forth. 

 

Burnout 

Burnout, another effect of stress, has clear implications for both people and 

organizations.  Burnout is a general feeling of exhaustion that develops 

when a person simultaneously experiences too much pressure and has too 

few sources of satisfaction.  

Burnout generally develops in the following way.  First, people with high 

aspirations and strong motivation to get things done are prime candidates 

for burnout under certain conditions.  They are especially vulnerable when 

the organization suppresses or limits their initiative while constantly 

demanding that they serve the organization's own ends. 

 

In such a situation, the individual is likely to put too much himself or 

herself into the job.  In other words, the person may well keep trying to 

meet his or her own agenda while simultaneously trying to fulfill the 

organization's expectations.  The most likely effects of this situation are 

prolonged stress, fatigue, frustration, and helplessness under the burden of 

overwhelming demands.  The person literally exhausts his or her 

aspirations and motivation, much as a candle burns itself out.  Loss of self-

confidence and psychological withdrawal follow ultimately. 

 

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22.5   MANAGING STRESS IN THE WORKPLACE 

Given that stress is widespread and so potentially disruptive in 

organizations, it follows that people and organizations should be concerned 

about how to manage it more effectively.  And in fact they are.  Many 

strategies have been developed to help manage stress in the workplace.  

Some are for individuals and others are geared toward organizations. 

 

 

Exercise:   Exercise is one method of managing stress.  People who 

exercise regularly are less likely to have heart attacks than inactive people.  

More directly, research has suggested that people who exercise regularly 

feel less tension and stress, are more self-confident, and show greater 

optimism.  People who do not exercise regularly feel more stress, are more 

likely to be depressed, and experience other negative consequences.  

 

Relaxation:  A related method of managing stress is relaxation.  We noted 

at the beginning of the chapter that coping with stress requires adaptation.  

Proper relaxation is an effective way to adapt.  Relaxation can take many 

forms.  One way to relax is to take regular vacations.  A recent study found 

that people's attitudes towards a variety of workplace characteristics 

improved significantly following a vacation.  People can also relax while 

on the job.  For example, it has been recommended that people take regular 

rest breaks during their normal workday.  A popular way of resting is to sit 

quietly with closed eyes for ten minutes every afternoon.  (Of course, it 

might be necessary to have an alarm clock handy!). 

 

Time Management:  Time management is often recommended for 

managing stress.  The idea is that many daily pressures can be eased or 

 

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eliminated if a person does a better job of managing time.  One popular 

approach to time management is to make a list every morning of the things 

to be done that day.  Then you group the items on the list into three 

categories: critical activities that must be performed, important activities 

that should be performed, and optional or trivial things that can be 

delegated or postponed.  Then, of course, you do the things on the list in 

their order of importance.  This strategy helps people get more of the 

important things done every day.  It also encourages delegation of less 

important activities to others.  The Talking Technology box illustrates how 

managers can better manage their time by using their cellular telephones 

more selectively. 

 

Role Management:  Somewhat related to time management is the idea of 

role management, in which the individual actively works to avoid overload, 

ambiguity, and conflict.  For example, if you do not know what is expected 

of you, you should not sit and worry about it.  Instead, ask for clarification 

from your boss.  Another role management strategy is to learn to say "no".  

As simple as saying "no" might sound, a lot of people create problems for 

themselves by always saying "yes".  Besides working in their regular jobs, 

they agree to serve on committees, volunteer for extra duties, and accept 

extra assignments.  Sometimes, of course, we have no choice but to accept 

an extra obligation (if our boss tells us to complete a new project, we will 

probably have to do it ).  In many cases, however, saying "no" is an option. 

 

Support Groups: A final method for managing stress is to develop and 

maintain support groups.   A support group is simply a group of family 

members or friends with whom a person can spend time.  Going out after 

work with a couple of coworkers to a basketball game, for example, can 

help relieve the stress that builds up during the day.  Supportive family and 

 

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friends can help people deal with normal stress on an ongoing basis.  

Support groups can be particularly useful during times of crisis.  For 

example, suppose an employee has just learned that she did not get the 

promotion she has been working toward for months.  It may help her 

tremendously if she had good friends to lean on, be it to talk to or to yell at. 

 

Organizational Coping Strategies: Organizations are also increasingly 

realizing that they should be involved in managing their employees' stress.  

There are two different rationales for this view.  One is that because the 

organization is at least partly responsible for creating the stress, it should 

help relieve it.  The other is that workers experiencing lower levels of 

harmful stress will function more effectively.  Two basic organizational 

strategies for helping employees manage stress are institutional programs 

and collateral programs. 

 

Institutional Programs: Institutional programs for managing stress are 

under taken through established organizational mechanisms.  For example, 

properly designed jobs and work schedules can help ease stress.  Shift 

work, in particular, can cause major problems for employees, because they 

constantly have to adjust their sleep and relaxation patterns.  Thus, the 

design of work and work schedules should be a focus of organizational 

efforts to reduce stress. 

 

The organization's culture also can be used to help manager stress.  In some 

organizations, for example, there is a strong norm against taking time off or 

going on vacation.  In the long run, such norms can cause major stress.  

Thus, the organization should strive to foster a culture that reinforces a 

healthy mix of work and nonwork activities. 

 

 

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Finally, supervision can play an important institutional role in managing 

stress.  A supervisor can be a major source of overload.  If made aware of 

their potential for assigning stressful amounts of work, supervisors can do a 

better job of keeping workloads reasonable. 

 

Collateral Programs:  In addition to institutional efforts aimed at reducing 

stress, many organizations are turning to collateral programs.  A collateral 

stress program is an organizational program specifically created to help 

employees deal with stress.  Organizations have adopted stress management 

programs, health promotion programs, and other kinds of programs for this 

purpose.  More and more companies are developing their own programs or 

adopting existing programs of this type.  For example, Lockheed Martin 

offers screening programs for its employees to detect signs of hypertension.  

The Mastering Change box provides other examples. 

 

Many firms today also have employee fitness programs.  These programs 

attack stress indirectly by encouraging employees to exercise, which is 

presumed to reduce stress.  On the negative side, this kind of effort costs 

considerably more than stress management programs, because the firm 

must invest in physical facilities.  Still, more and more companies are 

exploring this option.  Both Tenneco and L.L. Bean, for example, have 

state-of-the-art fitness centers for their employees. 

 

Finally, organizations try to help employees cope with stress through other 

kinds of programs.  For example, existing career development programs, 

like the one at General Electric, are used for this purpose.  Other companies 

use programs promoting everything from humor to massage as antidotes for 

stress.  Of course, little or no research supports some of the claims made by 

advocates of these programs.  Thus, managers must take steps to ensure that 

 

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any organizational effort to help employees cope with stress is at least 

reasonably effective.