Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
Parts-of-speech systems 57 (183) a. Mayroon-g Wala-ng libro sa mesa exist/poss-link exist/poss(neg)-link book on table ‘There is isn’t a book on the table’ b. Mayroon-g Wala-ng libro ang bata exist/poss-link exist/poss(neg)-link book top child ‘The child was doesn’t have a book’ Interjections are words that can constitute utterances in themselves, and that usually have no syntactic connection to any other words that may occur with them. English examples are hello, ah, aha, bah, oh, wow, etc. The class of interjections of a language often includes words which are phonologically dis- tinctive. For example, English words must in general contain at least one vowel sound, but interjections like hmm, pst, and shh are vowelless. And in many languages clicks (sounds produced with a velaric air stream) can occur in inter- jections (as in English tsk-tsk), but not elsewhere. All interjections are deictic (see Comrie and Thompson, vol. iii, chapter 6, on deixis). Although there are a good many linguistic descriptions that fail to mention interjections, it seems likely that all languages do in fact have such a class of words. In the case of extinct languages interjections may not be attested in the written records because of the generally informal, colloquial character of this word class. In the case of modern languages, the omission of interjections from a linguistic description probably just signifies that the description is incomplete. Mood markers are words that indicate the speaker’s attitude, or that solicit the hearer’s attitude, toward the event or condition expressed by a sentence. One common type of mood marker is the request marker, as exemplified by English please. Some others are illustrated by the Japanese examples of (184) (from Kuno (1973)), and the Tagalog examples of (185): (184) a. Kore wa hon desu yo this top book is statement ‘(I am telling you that) this is a book’ b. Kore wa hon desu ka? this top book is q ‘Is this a book?’ 58 Paul Schachter and Timothy Shopen c. John wa baka sa John top foolish statement ‘(It goes without saying that) John is a fool’ (185) a. Mabuti a ang ani? good q top harvest ‘Is the harvest good?’ b. Mabuti kaya ang ani? good q.speculative top harvest ‘Do you suppose the harvest will be good?’ c. Mabuti sana ang ani good wish top harvest ‘I hope the harvest is good’ (The Tagalog mood markers of (185) all also belong to the class of clitics – see above.) In languages that do not use mood markers, the semantic equivalent may be expressed in a wide variety of ways: for example by word order and intonation (as in English statements and questions), by verb inflections (cf. section 1.2) or auxiliary verbs (cf. section 2.3), or by explicit attitudinal expressions (e.g. I hope, do you suppose), etc. Negators are words like English not, which negate a sentence, clause, or other constituent. As was noted above, some languages have distinctive existential negators. In Tagalog, for example, the existential negator is wala (cf. (183)), while the general negator is hindi (cf. (168)). It is also quite common for lan- guages to have distinctive imperative/optative negators: for example Tagalog huwag, as in (186). (186) a. Huwag kayo-ng umalis neg you-link leave ‘Don’t leave’ b. Huwag siya-ng pumarito neg he-link come. here ‘He shouldn’t come here’ In some languages negation is regularly expressed by a pair of negative words. This is true, for example, of standard French, where negation requires the negative clitic ne plus some other negative word, as in (187). (187) a. Jean ne veut pas manger Jean neg wants not to. eat ‘Jean doesn’t want to eat’ b. Jean ne veut rien manger Jean neg wants nothing to. eat ‘Jean doesn’t want to eat anything’ |
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