Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
Parts-of-speech systems 49 examples, from non-verb-final Tagalog and verb-final Uzbek respectively, are thus quite typical. (The subordinating conjunctions in these examples are com- plementizers – see below.) (141) Itinanong ko kung nasaan sila asked I comp where they ‘I asked where they were’ (142) Ula Hasan gayergae ketkaen dep surad they Hasan where went comp asked ‘They asked where Hasan had gone’ Three classes of subordinating conjunctions can be distinguished on the basis of their functions: complementizers, relativizers, and adverbializers. These are discussed below in turn. Complementizers mark a clause as the complement of a verb (see (141–2)), noun (143), or adjective (144): (143) I question the claim that the earth is flat (144) I am afraid that I must leave A good many languages have a complementizer that is rather transparently derived from the verb meaning ‘say’. This is true, for example, of dep in (142), and it is also true of s ε in the following example from Akan: (145) ε y ε nokware s ε mihuu no it. is truth comp I. saw him ‘It’s true that I saw him’ (As (145) shows, complementizers that are derived from verbs meaning ‘say’ are by no means restricted to indirect quotation.) One common alternative to the use of a complementizer is simply not to mark the subordinate status of a complement clause, as in (146) or its Hausa equivalent, (147): (146) He said it was raining (147) Ya ce ana ruwa he.perf say there. is rain ‘He said it was raining’ Another alternative is to mark the subordinate status of the complement clause by nominalizing it: for example, by using a nominalized verb form and marking 50 Paul Schachter and Timothy Shopen the complement subject as a possessive, as in the following English and Uzbek examples: (148) John anticipated Mary’s winning the prize (149) Ula Hasann gayergae ketkaenini surad they Hasan’s where his. going asked ‘They asked where Hasan had gone’ (The nominalization construction of (149) alternates with the complementizer- marked clause of (142).) Relativizers are markers of relative clauses. Two examples, from Hausa and Akan respectively, are: (150) Na ga mutumin da ya yi aikin I.perf see the. man rel he.perf do the. work ‘I saw the man who did the work’ (151) ɔ barima a minim no te h ɔ man rel I.know him lives there ‘A man whom I know lives there’ Note that relativizers are not the same as relative pronouns (which are discussed in section 2.1). Relativizers merely mark the clause in which they occur as relative, while relative pronouns in addition have some nominal function within the clause. If we compare the relativizers of (150) and (151) with the relative pronouns in their English translations, we can see that Hausa da and Akan a have no nominal function, while who and whom function as subject and object respectively of the relative clauses in which they occur. Languages that do not use relativizers to mark relative clauses may use rel- ative pronouns or special relative verb forms, as in the Quechua example in (152) (from Weber (1976)), or may simply leave the relative clause unmarked, as in the Japanese example in (153) or its English translation: (152) Maqa-ma-q runa fiyu hit-me-rel man bad ‘The man who hits me is bad’ (153) Kore wa watakusi ga kaita hon desu this top I subj wrote book is ‘This is a book I have written’ Adverbializers mark clauses as having some adverbial function, such as the expression of time, purpose, result, etc. (See Thompson and Longacre in vol. ii , chapter 5, for a detailed typology of adverbial clauses.) In some languages, many of the words that serve as adverbializers also serve as prepositional or |
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