Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
hi, nan, han, di, and
ay. As discussed above, we use the term article in this chapter to denote words that commonly occur in noun phrases in a language and which code various grammatical or semantic features of the noun phrase, such as definiteness, but do not necessarily code a definite–indefinite distinction. The system of articles in Batad Ifugao is rather complex, and a number of the articles are used for a range of different functions, varying with the semantic case of the nominal, with whether it is grammatical topic or not, with whether the noun it goes with is a proper noun or a common noun, and in some cases with pragmatic features similar to definiteness. For example, the article hi can be used with a topic or with a nontopic object, but not with a nontopic actor. As a marker of topics, however, it only occurs with proper nouns, not with common nouns, while with nontopic objects, it only occurs with common nouns and in that use expresses something like indefiniteness. Example (157a) above illustrates both of these uses of hi. Word order 123 The order in the comparative construction in Batad Ifugao is Adjective- Marker-Standard, as in (163). (163) adukkoy han ¯ayiw an lengngoh Gumman ya un nan lengngoh Lahhin long det tree link cut.down Gumman than det cut.down Lahhin Adj M St ‘the tree that Gunman cut down is longer than the one that Lahhin cut down’ Adverbial subordinators occur at the beginning of their clause, as in (164). (164) abab¯ain ahan din in-at Immamata’’on ti shameful very det past-do Immamata’’on because Subord in-ihd¯a-na-y imbaluy-na past -eat-3sg-det child-3sg.poss Clause ‘what Immamata” on did was very shameful because he ate his son’ The example in (164) also illustrates an adverbial subordinate clause following the main clause. Both orders of main and subordinate clause are in fact common in Batad Ifugao, depending in part on the type of clause; (165) illustrates an adverbial clause preceding the main clause. (165) wa an tuma’dog hi P¯ılay ya in-lumdit P¯u’it di hu’¯ı-na when stand.up det P¯ılay and.then past-tramp P¯u’it det foot-3sg.poss ‘when Pilay stood up, Pu’it tramped on his foot’ Batad Ifugao employs a particle for marking polar questions. While the short form of the particle can occur in various positions in a sentence, the long form undan occurs at the beginning of the sentence, as in (166), conforming to the typical pattern for verb-initial languages. (166) undan lumagal¯aga hi Bukk¯ahan hi ulbung q weave.habit det Bukkahan det rice.basket ‘does Bukkahan always weave rice baskets?’ Interrogative expressions in content questions in Batad Ifugao occur at the beginning of the sentence, as in (167). (167) angnganggoh di pohdo-m hi ono-m what det want-2sg det eat-2sg ‘what do you want to eat?’ (literally ‘what is that which you want to eat?’) 124 Matthew S. Dryer Batad Ifugao does not have many adpositions, since the role played by adposi- tions in other languages is carried partly by the verb morphology that is involved in the focus system and partly by the form of determiners, and the adpositions that do exist do not appear to play a major role in the language, but what adpo- sitions exist are prepositions rather than postpositions, as in (168) – the one in (168a) meaning ‘before’, the one in (168b) meaning ‘like’. (168) a. mahh¯una’ an um-uy ya un he’’a be.first link go before 2sg Pr NP ‘I will go before you’ b. ay ug¯ali-n di i-Batad di aton nan iy-Umb¯ulu like custom-link det from-Batad det do det from-Cambulo Pr NP ‘what the people of Cambulo do is like the custom of the people of Batad’ Prepositional phrases normally follow the verb in Batad Ifugao, as in (168a). The prepositional phrase in (168b) occurs at the beginning of the clause because it is itself the predicate and is not modifying a verb. Its initial position reflects the position of predicates in general in Batad Ifugao, whether they are verbal or nonverbal. In the preceding section on Siyin Chin, we noted that modal words for ability follow the main verb. In Batad Ifugao, we find the opposite order: the verb meaning ‘be able’ precedes the verb it goes with, as in (169). (169) mabalin-a’ an dal¯anon nan adagwi-n kulha able-1sg link walk det far-link road Verb 1 -S Link V 2 ‘I am able to walk far on a road’ The construction in (169), what we can call a ‘verb chain construction’, is one that is used for a wide range of meanings in Batad Ifugao: it consists of a pair of verbs, connected by the linking word an. Typically the subject will immediately follow the first verb. It is not clear that there is any sense in which one of the two verbs is grammatically the ‘main verb’, though semantically, the first verb is often one that one might loosely call an ‘auxiliary verb’, while the second verb is more like a main verb. Only a minority of verbs in the language can occur as the first verb in this construction, while apparently any verb can occur as the second verb. A few other examples are given in (170), where the first verbs mean ‘want’, ‘begin’, and ‘delay until night’, respectively. (The exam- ple in (170a) is embedded within a nominal expression, and there is no overt subject.) Word order 125 (170) a. di [mamhod an man¯ayaw] det want link dance V 1 Link V 2 ‘the ones who want to dance’ b. ente’’an da Um¯angob an mumb¯a’i begin pl Umangob link recite.ritual.prayer V 1 S Link V 2 ‘Um¯angob and others began reciting ritual prayers’ c. iny-ahdom Tum¯apang an iyan¯amut din l¯aman . . . delay.until.night Tumapang link bring.home that wild.pig V 1 S Link V 2 ‘Tumapang delayed until night bringing home that wild pig . . .’ Batad Ifugao is typical among verb-initial languages in placing the expression of words meaning ‘want’ and ‘begin’ before the verb expressing what is wanted or what has begun. This verb chain construction is also used to express a number of meanings that are often expressed in other languages by adverbs. For example, in (171), the first verb in the verb chain means ‘to be first’ and when combined with a verb, the resultant verb chain has the meaning ‘to be the first to “verb”’. (171) mahh¯un-a’ an umuy ya un he’’a be.first-1sg link go before 2sg V 1 -S Link V 2 ‘I will go first before you’ Batad Ifugao uses this construction to express meanings that other languages express with manner adverbs, where the first verb is a verb expressing manner and the second verb is a verb expressing the action that is done in the manner expressed by the first verb, as in (172). (172) a. umulla’ullay han nundogoh an dum¯alan do.slow:habit det be.in.pain link walk V 1 S Link V 2 ‘the one who is in pain always walks slowly’ b. imay’an-yu-n uminum hinan bayah do.moderately-2pl-link drink det homemade.beer V 1 -S-Link V 2 ‘drink rice beer moderately’ From a purely semantic point of view, we might say that Batad Ifugao places the manner adverb before the verb, contrary to the normal pattern for verb-initial |
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