Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
participant verbs in English meeting this description are in their active form
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
participant verbs in English meeting this description are in their active form (we will discuss passives later), they always have the acting, ‘agent’ argument as subject, and the acted-upon or ‘patient’ argument as object. I will use the term ‘semantic role’ to refer to both the specific roles imposed on nps by a given predicate, such as ‘killer’ and ‘killed’, and to the more general classes of roles, such as ‘agent’ and ‘patient’. Semantic roles are important in the study of grammatical functions since grammatical functions usually express semantic roles in a highly systematic way. 3 In our subsequent discussion we will first examine the agent and patient roles, and the intimate connection they have with the basic grammatical forms of all languages. Then we will survey a variety of further semantic roles which it is useful to recognize. 3 Semantic roles first began to be discussed extensively in recent American linguistics in the work of Gruber (1965, 1976) and Fillmore (1968). For more recent discussion, see, for example, Jackendoff (1990), Dowty (1991) and Wechsler (1995). The major functions of the noun phrase 137 1.1.1 Agent and patient To begin with, it is essential to understand that there is an element of arbitrariness in the definitions of agent, patient or any other semantic roles. We try to define them in such a way that they will be most useful for helping us to identify and understand phenomena, but there will always be issues that people can disagree about. For example some people might think that agents should be conscious and volitional performers of their actions; others might be happy with unconscious and accidental agency. Paradoxically, it’s the very importance of these concepts that makes it difficult to be sure about the best way of defining them: the fully volitional performer of an action, and the substantially affected undergoer of one, seem to be ‘grammatical poles’ in the sense that other semantic roles that don’t quite meet these criteria, such as the Seer and Seen of the verb see, tend to be expressed in the same way. The assimilation in mode of expression of many different semantic roles to agent- and patient-like concepts makes it hard to work out how best to define these concepts. 4 Another point is that we need to distinguish between what a verb itself actually implies, and what might be true in a situation described by the verbs. In a situation described by the sentence ‘Mary hit John’, for example, Mary might intend to hit John, or hit him by accident. The sentence itself is neutral on this issue. In our accounts of semantic roles, what we will be interested in is what the verbs and sentences themselves imply, not what is actually the case in the situation described. With these cautions in mind, I will define an agent as a participant which the meaning of the verb describes as doing something, or causing something to happen, possibly intentionally (that is, because (s)he wants it to). We take intentionality as a possible but not required property of the role because in many languages, such as English, many verbs, such as hit as discussed above, are neutral about intentionality. On the other hand, if a language has constructions in which the causer of an action is explicitly characterized as not intending it, such as the ‘Involitive’ forms of Singhala (Inman (1993)) and many other South Asian languages (Klaiman (1986)), these causers will not be classified as agents. A patient will be defined as a participant which the verb describes as having something happen to it, and as being affected by what happens to it. By this definition, the objects of kill, eat and smash are clearly patients, while those of Download 1.59 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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