Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
particular importance for the workings of the language, so that it would be rea-
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
particular importance for the workings of the language, so that it would be rea- sonable, although not necessarily correct, to regard it as a primitive ingredient of sentence-structure. This terminological distinction, although novel, is useful for discussing sentence-structures in a language without making controversial claims about what their ultimate analysis ought to be, and what kind of linguistic theory they ought to be framed in. The major functions of the noun phrase 135 For example, in English, subject and object are grammatical relations, since they are relevant for the operation of many grammatical rules, so that one could plausibly view them as primitive ingredients of English sentence-structure. But ‘subject of a transitive clause’ (‘transitive subject’) and ‘subject of an intran- sitive clause’ (‘instransitive subject’), although they are grammatical functions (since they are definable within any reasonable theory of English sentence structure), do not qualify as grammatical relations in English, since they are not relationships that are relevant for the operation of a significant number of grammatical rules, and treating them as primitives of sentence-structures will obscure the statement of grammatical rules (one would have to say ‘verbs agree with their transitive subjects or their intransitive subjects, whichever is present’, rather than just ‘verbs agree with their subjects’). 1 Preliminaries 1.1 Semantic roles In the most usual type of sentence structure, there is a verbal element that designates a type of situation, which usually implies various roles, that is, ways of participating in that situation. Thus we have seen that kill designates a type of situation with ‘killed’ and ‘killer’ roles, among others. The element that defines the type of situation and the roles we call a ‘predicate’, 2 the nps filling the roles we call ‘arguments’. The predicate needn’t be a single verb. Sometimes it is a complex consisting of several verbs, or a verb plus a nominal or adverbial element. Example (4a) illustrates a two-verb predicate from the Papuan language Barai (Foley and Olson (1985)), (4b) a verb + noun predicate from the Dravidian language Malayalam (Mohanan (1982)), and (4c) a verb + (adverbial) particle predicate from English. The complex predicate in each example is italicized: complex predicates have recently been the subject of a great deal of research; see Alsina, Bresnan, and Sells (1997) for a recent collection of studies. (4) a. Fu fase isema fi isoe he letter wrongly sat write ‘He wrongly sat writing a letter’ b. Kut.t.i ammaye salyam ceyt ¯ u child mother annoyance did ‘The child annoyed the mother’ c. The guards beat the prisoners up 2 Note that this is different from the use of the term ‘predicate’ in traditional grammar to refer to the verb and its objects and complement. 136 Avery D. Andrews Languages also have sentence types in which a nonverbal element is the predicate, or where there is no overt predicate word, the predicate being under- stood from the syntactic structure of the sentence as a whole. We illustrate this possibility with some examples from Russian (see section 1 of chapter 4 by Dryer, for more discussion): (5) a. Kniga na stole book on table ‘The book is on the table’ b. U menja kniga of me book ‘I have a book’ In addition to a main predicate, a sentence may have additional, subsidiary predicates. In the sentence John made Mary happy, for example, the principal predicate is the verb made, and the adjective happy is a subsidiary predicate applying to Mary. In spite of these possibilities, we will generally refer to the main predicate simply as ‘the verb’. A predicate defines a set of highly specific roles, such as ‘killer’ and ‘killed’, which can in fact be thought of as being rather like roles for the actors in a drama: the role determines what happens to its filler. Examining the nature of the relation between these roles and grammatical relations, we find that it is far from arbitrary: there are always far-reaching regularities and generalizations, statable in terms of semantically definable classes of roles. Thus it is no accident that kill expresses the killer as subject and the killed as object; kill is one of a large class of verbs in which one participant, possibly exercising his or her will, does something to another which significantly affects the other. When two- Download 1.59 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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