Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
1.2
Coding strategies There are three basic techniques which languages use to code syntactic functions: order and arrangement, np-marking, and cross-referencing. In addi- tion, verbs sometimes ‘register’ the presence of an np with a given grammatical function, without specifically identifying which np has that function. Further- more, two different techniques can function together as a strategy. 1.2.1 Order and arrangement This technique is familiar from English. It is the order of nps in (1) relative to the verb that indicates which is the subject (and therefore the agent) and which the object (and therefore the patient). English is an example of what we will call a ‘fixed’ word order system, one in which grammatical principles to a considerable extent prescribe the order of nps. In such systems we find a ‘basic’ order, with various alternative orders systematically related to it. Since the workings of such systems are familiar from English, there is no need to discuss them here. We also find systems in which there is a preferred order, but where a great deal of variation is possible as long as ambiguity is not introduced (although some languages seem to tolerate surprising amounts of ambiguity). Thus in Dakota (Van Valin (1985:366–7)), the preferred order is subject-object-verb 142 Avery D. Andrews (SOV). If the semantics of the verb is not sufficient to determine which np takes which role, this order is obligatory. Hence changing the order of the nps in (9) changes the meaning: (9) a. Wiˇc´asa ki math´o w¸a kt¸e man the bear a killed ‘The man killed a bear’ b. Math´o w¸a wiˇc´asa ki kt¸e bear a man the killed ‘A bear killed the man’ But if there is only one semantically plausible choice for subject, the relative order of nps becomes free (though nps and other constituents must remain in front of the verb): (10) a. Wiˇc´asa ki ix?´e w¸a w¸ay´ale man the rock a saw b. Ix?´e w¸a wiˇc´asa ki w¸ay´ale rock a man the saw ‘The man saw a rock’ In Dakota syntax, it does not seem to be sensible to try to describe the order possibilities in terms of a basic order and specific alternatives. Rather the order is flexible, subject to an SOV preference, especially when needed to prevent ambiguity. This sort of system we will call ‘fluid’, as opposed to the highly determinate word order system of languages like English. Fluidity seems to be characteristic of many languages of diverse word order types. Fluid word order is usually not actually free, but is rather signalling pragmatic functions rather than grammatical relations. See Kiss (1987) and King (1995) for recent studies of two such ‘discourse-configurational’ languages, Kiss (1995) for a collection of studies, and Choi (1999) for detailed analyses of the phenomenon in Korean and German. The main difficulty in assessing the fluidity of word order is the fact that elicitation of sentences from informants will tend to produce the normal word order rather than a full spectrum of possible variants. Observation of actual language use, and examination of narrative and other natural genres of texts, will often reveal a much wider range of orders in their appropriate contexts. 1.2.2 n p -marking No language makes exclusive use of ordering to code grammatical relations, and many make very little use of it for this purpose. A technique which every language uses to some extent, and some use almost exclusively, is np-marking. In this technique, the syntactic function of an np is The major functions of the noun phrase 143 indicated by a morphological marker on the np. This marker may take the form of an inflection (see Bickel and Nichols, vol. iii, chapter 3), or be a morphologi- cally autonomous element, such as a clitic (which might also be called a ‘parti- cle’), a preposition (if it precedes the np), or a postposition (if it follows). Both the inflections and the morphologically autonomous elements are often called ‘case-markers’. There is a great deal of fluctuation in the literature as to whether morpholog- ically autonomous np-markers are called ‘particles’, ‘pre- or postpositions’, or ‘case-markers’. But there is widespread agreement that they should be seen as instances of a general technique which Nichols (1986) calls ‘dependent mark- ing’, where the existence of a grammatical relation between two elements of a sentence is indicated by a marker placed on the dependent term. Dependent- marking can, however, apply to more than just nps, for example to clauses or predicate adjectives. In English the principal use of np-marking is with prepositional phrase argu- ments and adjuncts. Thus the sentences of (11) are virtual paraphrases: (11) a. Bobby spoke to the meeting about the proposal b. Bobby spoke about the proposal to the meeting Download 1.59 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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