Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
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hciyiniw-ah nisto e . =mipah-a . t awa na . pe . sis Blackfoot-obv three kill-direct this boy ‘This boy had killed three Blackfoot’ Bloomfield (1934:98), cited in Dahlstrom (1991:62) b. osa . m e . =sa . kih-ikot ohta . wiy-ah aw o . skini . kiw too much love-inv his father-obv this young man ‘for his father too much cherished this young man’ Bloomfield (1934:58), cited in Dahlstrom (1991:63) Dahlstrom shows that the obviative marking on the nouns, and the direct/inverse marking on the verbs, is irrelevant to grammatical relations, the a being a subject and the p an object regardless of these markings. These systems also constitute a case of ptvs having two different-looking treatments of a and p, depending on which is the proximate in the discourse. 8 See Aissen (1997, 1999) for discussion, and an application to the Mayan language Tzotzil, where obviation had not previously been seen as relevant. 148 Avery D. Andrews So we have a combination of dependent-marking (obviation on the nouns) and head-marking (direct/inverse marking on the verbs) conveying the semantic roles. Cross-referencing also enters the mix: when a verb has first or second person arguments, these are cross-referenced in fixed positions on the verb, with the direct/inverse marking indicating which is a and which p: (19) a. ki-wa . pam-i-n 2-see-direct(1)-sg ‘You(sg) see me’ b. ki-wa . pam-iti-n 2-see-inv(1)-sg ‘I see you(sg)’ Dahlstrom (1991:42) In this language, second person is treated as proximate as opposed to first, but the opposite ranking is also possible. The entire system comprises one kind of dependent-marking and two kinds of head-marking (cross-referencing together with direct/inverse marking), which all work together in a complicated way to signal the semantic roles. 1.3 Pragmatic functions Pragmatic functions involve a great variety of considerations, many of which are not very well understood. Some of the important concepts are: (a) what the hearer is presumed to be already conscious of (‘given’ vs ‘non-given’); (b) what the sentence is about (‘topicality’); (c) whether an np has or doesn’t have a referent uniquely identifiable to the hearer (‘definiteness’ and ‘identifiability’); (d) whether the speaker is referring to a particular instance of an entity as opposed to any instance of it (‘specificity’); (e) what is ‘foregrounded’ as impor- tant vs what is ‘backgrounded’ as secondary; (f) the point of view taken by the speaker on the situation being talked about (‘empathy’, or ‘perspective’); (g) inherent ‘salience properties’ of nps, such as animacy, humanness, or first-personhood. Many of these concepts are discussed and clarified in Lambrecht (1994), and their interactions with sentence structure are examined in Foley in chapter 7. In this section we will limit ourselves to discussing three major ‘pragmatic articulations’ of sentence-structure that tend to have significance for grammatical functions: ‘topic–comment’, ‘presupposition–focus’ and ‘thetic’. Pragmatic functions are relevant to grammatical functions because there are frequently rules or tendencies relating the two. ‘Subjects’, for example, as we will discuss later, often show either a strong tendency or even an absolute requirement to be topics (Lambrecht (1994:131–7)). |
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