Measuring student knowledge and skills
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measuring students\' knowledge
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Situations for reading
Reading for private use Reading for public use Reading for work Reading for education Others Self Relatives Friends Anonymous Objects Co-workers Managers Instructors Use Curiosity Contact Information To do To learn Contents Letters Fiction Biography “How to…” books and magazines Maps Notices Regulations Programmes Pamphlets Forms Instructions Manuals Schedules Memos Reports Tables/Graphs Texts Maps Schematics Tables Graphs Measuring Student Knowledge and Skills 24 OECD 1999 – Reading for education: this type of reading is normally involved with acquiring information as part of a larger learning task. The materials are often not chosen by the reader, but assigned by an instruc- tor. The content is usually designed specifically for the purpose of instruction. Typical tasks are often referred to as “reading to learn” (Sticht, 1975; Stiggins, 1982). Text types Reading requires something for the reader to read. In an assessment, that something – a text – must be coherent within itself. That is, the text must be able to stand alone without requiring additional printed material. 2 While it is obvious that there are many different kinds of texts and that any assessment should include a broad range of them, it is not as obvious that there is an ideal categorisation of text types. There are different proposals as to the appropriate categories, many of them created for practical rather than theoretical purposes. All of them share the fact that no particular physical text seems to fit easily into only one category. For example, a chapter in a textbook might include definitions (often iden- tified as a text type), instructions on how to solve particular problems (yet another text type), a brief his- torical narrative of the discovery of the solution (still another text type), and descriptions of some typical objects involved in the solution (a fourth text type). It might be thought that a definition, for example, could be extracted and treated as a single text for assessment purposes. But this would remove the definition from the context, create an artificial text type (definitions almost never occur alone, except in dictionaries), and prevent item writers from creating tasks that deal with reading activities which require integrating information from a definition with infor- mation from instructions. Some texts are presented as being accounts of the world as it is (or was) and thus claim to be factual or non-fictional. Fictional accounts bear a more metaphorical relationship to the world as it is, appearing either as accounts of how it might be or of how it seems to be. This distinction is increasingly blurred as authors use formats and structures typical of factual texts in creating their fictions. The OECD/PISA read- ing assessment will include both factual and fictional texts, and texts that may not be clearly classified as one or the other, but will not attempt to measure differences in reading proficiency between one type and the other. A more important classification of texts, and one at the heart of the organisation of the OECD/PISA assessment, is the distinction between continuous and non-continuous texts. Continuous texts are typi- cally composed of sentences that are, in turn, arranged in paragraphs. These may fit into even larger structures such as sections, chapters, and books. Non-continuous texts are most frequently organised in matrix format, based on combinations of lists. Conventionally, continuous texts are formed of sentences arranged in paragraphs. In these texts, organisation is evident in paragraphing, indentation, and the breakdown of text into a hierarchy signalled by headings that help readers to recognise the structure of the text. These markers also provide clues to text boundaries (marking section completion, for example). The finding of information is often facilitated by the use of different font sizes, font types such as italic or bold, and borders or shading. The use of for- mat clues is an essential sub-skill of effective reading. Organisational information is also signalled by discourse markers. Sequence markers (first, second, third, etc.), for example, signal the relationships between the units which they introduce and indicate how the units relate to the larger surrounding text. The primary classification of continuous texts is by rhetorical purpose, or text type. Non-continuous texts, or documents as they are sometimes referred to, can be categorised in two ways. One is the formal structure approach used in the work of Kirsch and Mosenthal. 3 Their work classifies the texts by the way in which the underlying lists are put together to construct the various 2. This does not preclude the use of several texts in a single task, but each of the texts should itself be coherent. 3. The Kirsch and Mosenthal model was set out in detail in a series of monthly columns called “Understanding Documents” published in the Journal of Reading between 1989 and 1991. |
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