Microsoft Word umk 3-kurs leksikologiya kunduzgi

Dysphemism - the substitution of a derogatory or unpleasant term for a pleasant or neutral one and a term so used (pushing up daisies, sniff it).
Understatement - (an unduly) restrained statement or expression, representing the facts as being less than is actually the case.
Hyperbole - a figure of speech consisting in emphatically exaggerated or extravagant statement, used to express strong feeling or produce a strong impression, not meant to be taken literally (There were millions of people in the street. The heat drives me crazy. smashing new dress; skyscraper).
Synecdoche - a figure of speech in which the part is used for the whole or the whole is used for the part (wheels for car, creatures for cats).
Litotes - a figure of speech where something is understated, often ironically. E.g. an affirmative is expressed by the negative of the contrary. (No small amount). (Not bad, meaning good).
Irony - language that expresses a meaning other than that literally conveyed by the words. (That's marvellous, said of poor work)
Paradox - an apparent contradiction that contains a truth. A situation, fact or statement which seems impossible and/or difficult to understand because it contains two opposite facts or characteristics.
A metaphor is transference of names on the basis of comparison. "Building a bridge to the 21 st century. " (Bill Clinton), "It's morning again in America. " ( Ronald Reagan) • E. g. The stars danced playfully in the moonlit sky. • She did not realize that opportunity was knocking at her door.
Metaphors are classified according to degree of familiarity or novelty • Dead (trite) metaphors, whose images are highly unmarked, e. g. the mouth of the river, the foot of a hill. • Stock or standard metaphors are established metaphors not deadened by overuse. E. g. the “body” of a car, 'he's on the eve of getting married' • Recent metaphor is an anonymous metaphorical neologism, which has become generally used in the language. E. g. red states - червош штати “консервативш/республ1канськ1 штати США”, blue dog Democrat - консервативний демократ, “синш пес” “фшансово защкавлений демократ i, як правило, прибiчник полггики твденних шталв” • Original metaphors are created by the writers or speakers usually to make text more interesting and often used to highlight particular points. E. g. Their economy should be hunting for the defibrillator.
The metaphor has no formal limitations: it can be a word, a phrase, any part of a sentence, or a sentence as a whole. Simple metaphors contain only one vehicle. E. g. His life was a tragedy. • Sustained (extended, prolonged) metaphors occur whenever one metaphorical statement, creating an image, is followed by another, containing a continuation, or logical development of the previous one. Hence, in a sustained metaphor the central vehicle is supported by one or more vehicles contributing to the same image. E. g. His life was a tragedy written in the terms of knock-about farce. (Maugham)
Metonymy • Metonymy is a trope based upon contiguity - upon a real connection (inward or outward) - between the object of nomination and the object whose name by way of associations is used to replace it. Metonymy is transference of names based on contiguity (nearness), (The metaphor has no real connection. ) E. g. The pen is mightier than the sword.
"My brass will call your brass, " says one of the characters of A. Hailey's Airport to another, meaning "My boss will call your boss. " The transference of names is caused by both bosses being officers, wearing uniform caps with brass cockades
Types of metonymy • the abstract stands for the concrete: E. g. But then he did not really want any of these people, did not want company for company’s sake. What he really wanted was Love, Romance, a Wonderful Girl of His Own. And these had lately all been assuming the same shape in his mind, that of Lena Golspie. (Priestley) • the container is mentioned instead of the contents: E. g. He sipped one more bottle (of whisky). • the material instead of the thing made of it: E. g. She was glancing through his water colours. • the maker stands for the thing made: E. g. The Rembrandt turned out to be fake. He adores Mozart. • the instrument is put for the agent: E. g. His brush can be easily recognized.
Synecdoche is a specific kind of metonymic relationship - a qualitative one where a part stands for a whole, the singular stands for the plural. E. g. There were long legs all around. E. g. ‘A woman can forgive a man for the harm he does her’ he said, ‘but she can never forgive him for the sacrifices he makes on her account. ’ (Maugham) • Function. Metonymy usually creates an ironic or even sarcastic effect, sometimes it serves intensification
Irony • Irony (meaning "concealed mockery") is a device based on the opposition of meaning to the sense (dictionary and contextual). Irony is a stylistic device in which the words express a meaning that is often the direct opposite of the intended meaning. E. g. It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket. E. g. I adore political parties. They are the only place left to us where people do not talk politics” (Wilde) Apart from splits based on politics, racial, religious and ethic backgrounds and specific personality differences, we’re just one cohesive team. (D. Uhnak)
There are 3 main types of irony : dramatic, verbal, situational. Verbal Irony is the difference between what is said and what is meant. Situational Irony is the difference between what actually happens and what is expected. Dramatic Irony is the difference between what the audience sees and what the characters believe to be true. • One of the functions of irony is producing a humorous effect. Irony gives critical evaluation of the thing spoken about and expresses ridicule, mockery or contempt
Epithet • Epithet expresses a characteristic of an object, both existing & imaginary. (the sleepless pillow, the tobacco-stained smile, a ghost-like face). Epithet is an adjective, adverb or descriptive phrase used to characterise a person or object usually with the aim to give them subjective evaluation. • a criminal crusade
Phrase-epithet (holophrasis) is semantically self-sufficient word combination or even a whole sentence which loses some of its independence and self-sufficiency, becoming a member of another sentence. • E. g. I-am-not-that-kind-of-girl look, shoot- them-down attitude • ”the sunshine-in-the-breakfast-room smell” (J. Baldwin) • “They raised their eyebrows with a good deal of To-what-arewe- indebted-for-the-honour-of-this-visitness” (Wodehouse) • “That was his live-and- let-live spirit” (Wodehouse) • Inverted epithets are composed of two nouns linked in an ofphrase. (the defining and the defined words change their places). E. g. the devil of a woman: an angel of a girl, a miracle of a car, a jewel of a house
Euphemism • Euphemism is a variant of a periphrasis. It is also based on the use of a descriptive expression instead of the word denoting the notion. But it has a special character. Euphemism is a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one. E. g. To die - to pass away, to be no more, to depart, to be gone, to join the silent majority Euphemisms are synonyms of those unpleasant words which aim at the producing deliberately mild effect
Hyperbole • Hyperbole is a stylistic device in which emphasis is achieved through deliberate exaggeration. Hyperbole is aimed at exaggerating quantity or quality. E. g. I have told it to you a thousand times. The man was like the Rock of Gibraltar
Litotes • Litotes is a two-component structure in which two negations are joined to give a positive evaluation. E. g. "Her face was not unhandsome" (A. H.) or "Her face was not unpretty". (К. K.)