Perceptual and Motor Skills, 2011, 113, 2, 631-646. Perceptual and Motor Skills 2011
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Participants
The study was based on cross-sectional data from a large study called “Growing up in rural settings in Mid-Norway.” Adolescents from elemen- tary and secondary schools in six rural communities of one county par- ticipated. A total of 2,341 adolescents was asked to participate (1,648 from senior high school and 693 from junior high school). A total of 1,862 par- ticipants completed the questionnaires, a response rate of 79.5%. Missing responses were mainly due to noncooperation of classes or students being absent when the questionnaire was administered. In the present study, the age range was restricted to adolescents 13 to 18 years old, and the analyses were therefore undertaken for N = 1,508 students (81% of the total of 1,862 participants). Of the participants, 769 (51.1%) were girls and 735 (48.9%) were boys (four participants did not report sex). The mean age for girls was 15.0 yr. (SD = 1.6) and for boys 14.8 yr. (SD = 1.5). The mean age of the whole group was 14.9 yr. (SD = 1.5). STRESS AND HAPPINESS AMONG ADOLESCENTS 635 Procedure The study was reported and carried out according to the rules of the Norwegian Social Science Data Service. Consent was given by the mu- nicipalities and the schools. The youth and their parents received a letter, which explained the intention of the study. During data collection, it was emphasized that participation was voluntary, anonymous, and confiden- tial, and no identity data were collected. Questionnaires were distributed to the schools directly and were administered to the classes during one class hour under supervision from teachers, which gave a high response rate. As far as possible, the questionnaires were given at the same time to all classes. Measures Demographic measures included age, sex, and school grade. Physical activity was measured using one item: “During the last four weeks, how many days per week have you participated in sports or physical activity so hard that you had high respiratory frequency, sweated, or had an in- creased heart rate for at least 20 min. (or more)?” The response categories were: 1: Never, 2: Less than one day a week, 3: One day a week, 4: Two or three days a week, and 5: Mostly every day during the week. The ques- tion was adapted from Kurtze, Gundersen, and Holmen (2003). The ques- tion has been validated, and reliability tested. Test-retest reliability of fre- quencies (8–12 days) was .73 in Rangul, Holmen, Kurtze, Cuypers, and Midthjell (2008). Stress.—Stress was assessed using the Norwegian version of the Ado- lescent Stress Questionnaire (Moksnes, Byrne, Mazanov, & Espnes, 2010), which is a 58-item questionnaire (Byrne, Davenport, & Mazanov, 2007) on common adolescent stressors rated on a 5-point scale: 1: Not stressful or irrelevant to me, 2: A little stressful, 3: Moderately stressful, 4: Quite stressful, and 5: Very stressful. This questionnaire has been continuous- ly developed and validated by Byrne, et al. (2007). The Norwegian ver- sion has been validated for use in Norwegian adolescent samples (Mok- snes, Byrne, et al., 2010). The factor analysis on the Total stress scale shows nine dimensions associated with (1) teacher/adult interaction, (2) peer pressure, (3) home life, (4) adult responsibility, (5) romantic relationships, (6) school attendance, (7) school/leisure conflict, (8) school performance, and (9) financial pressure. As in the study of Mazanov and Byrne (2008), the responses in the current study were summed to give a Total score. These summed scores had a minimum score of 58 and a maximum score of 287 for the 58 items. The stress scale was divided into three statistically equal-sized groups: Low stress = 58–100, Moderate stress = 101–149, and High stress = 150–287 (Moksnes, Byrne, et al., 2010). Cronbach’s alpha in I. E. O. MOLJORD, eT al. 636 the present study was .97, which reflects a very good reliability (Carmines & Zeller, 1994; Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). No other estimates of reliabil- ity or validity were conducted. Happiness.—Happiness was measured using the Fordyce Happiness Scale, based on the work of Wessman and Ricks (1966) and improved and validated by Fordyce (1988). This scale has three items assessing the per- centage of time a respondent feels happy, neutral, or unhappy based on a Likert-type rating. The present study used a 1-item scale with an 11-point answer category from 0–10, which is a measure of intensity (or quality) of happiness (Fordyce, 1988). The question was, “How happy or pleased have you been during the last week?” with response categories based on: 0: Extremely unhappy, 1: Very unhappy, 2: Quite unhappy, 3: Moderately unhappy, 4: A little unhappy, 5: Neutral, 6: A little happy, 7: Moderately happy, 8: Quite happy, 9: Very happy, and 10: Extremely happy. The test-retest reliabilities for the Fordyce Happiness Scale were .98 for a 2-day period and .86 to .88 for a 2-wk. period, .81 for 1 mo. for the combination scores, and acceptable test-retest correlation coefficients ranging from .59 to .85 over time intervals of 1.5–15 wk. (Fordyce, 1988; Toussaint & Friedman, 2009). Reliability of this measure has been shown to be comparable to values for the intensity scores (Fordyce, 1988). The Happiness Scale has shown good discriminant and construct validities in several studies, and a strong and consistent convergence with a wide array of recognized happiness, well-being, and emotional instruments (Fordyce, 1988; Hormes, Lytle, Gross, Ahmed, Troxel, & Schmitz, 2008; Toussaint & Friedman, 2009). analysis Data were screened for missing values and outliers. The missing rate was relatively low for the different variables: 0.3% (sex), 1.1% (physical activity), 9.4% (stress), and 16% (happiness). The sample of missing data was random (MCAR; Allison, 2001). For respondents with up to 25% miss- ing responses within a scale, missing responses were replaced with modes (Mazanov & Byrne, 2008). For respondents with more than 25% missing responses within a scale, no score was calculated. Missing items were treated the same in all the analyses. Means and standard deviations, including frequencies and ratings, were calculated for the variables of physical activity, stress, and happi- ness. Pearson correlations were calculated to estimate the bivariate as- sociations between the variables used. Multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) were used to assess sex and age differences on the outcome of physical activity, stress, and happiness (two-way between-groups), as well as how sex, age, and stress are associated with the outcome of physi- cal activity and happiness (three-way between-groups). Preliminary as- STRESS AND HAPPINESS AMONG ADOLESCENTS 637 sumption testing was conducted to check for normality, linearity, univari- ate and multivariate outliers, homogeneity, variance-covariance matrices, and multicollinearity, with no serious violation noted. Wilks’ Lambda was used to evaluate the significance of all multivariate effects, and the alpha level was set to .05. In the three-way between-groups comparison, the stress scale with a range of 58–287 was divided into three groups: Low stress = 58–134, Moderate stress = 135–210, and High stress = 211–287. Bonferroni’s post hoc procedure was applied to assess mean values be- tween groups on the dependent variables of physical activity, stress, and happiness, because Bonferroni-adjusted alpha reduces the risk for Type 1 errors. To analyze possible age differences, ages (13 to 18 years) were di- vided into three groups: Group 1, 13 to 14 years; Group 2, 15 to 16 years; and Group 3, 17 to 18 years. A one-way between-groups analysis of variance applying Bonferro- ni’s post hoc adjustment to tests was performed to examine whether mean group differences were significant for physical activity on the dependent variables of stress and happiness. Physical activity was divided into three groups with Low = 1 day or less per week, Moderate = 2–3 days per week, and High = most days per week. These categories were based on frequen- cy distributions and an understanding of these categories as reflecting re- ports of low, moderate, and high physical activity. Download 306.2 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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