Perceptual and Motor Skills, 2011, 113, 2, 631-646. Perceptual and Motor Skills 2011
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F p η² df F p η² df F p η² Sex 1 2.35 .13 0.002 1 43.98 < .001 .035 1 7.34 .007 .006 Age 2 0.25 .78 < 0.001 2 4.45 .01 .007 2 1.75 .17 .003 Sex × Age 2 2.27 .10 0.004 2 3.11 .05 .005 2 3.29 .04 .005 Note.—η² indicates effect sizes. STRESS AND HAPPINESS AMONG ADOLESCENTS 641 garding the health gains of physical activity has been shown when people move from being least physically active to moderately or highly physical- ly active (Anderssen & Strømme, 2001). However, it has also been found that the more physically active the youth were, the better health they re- ported (Nesheim & Haugland, 2003). The negative association of physical activity with stress has been previously reported (Haugland, et al., 2003; Fleshner, 2005; Penedo & Dahn, 2005), and this is also the case with the positive association of happiness with physical activity (Dishman, Motl, Saunders, Felton, Ward, Dowda, et al., 2005; Penedo & Dahn, 2005). In the study by Moksnes, Moljord, et al. (2010), however, physical activity did not moderate the relation between overall stress and psychological func- tioning (depression, anxiety, and self-esteem). The data do not support Hypothesis 2a, that boys would report sig- nificantly higher mean physical activity than girls. This is not consistent with a number of previous findings (Trost, et al., 2002; Nesheim & Haug- land, 2003; Duncan, et al., 2007; Sherar, Esliger, Baxter-Jones, & Tremblay, 2007; Moksnes, Moljord, et al., 2010). However, it has been reported that sex differences in actually partaking in physical activity have been small- er than those from self-report methods to assess physical activity (Trost, et al., 2002). This may reflect that the item used in this study assessed the actual occurrence of physical activity. Girls reported statistically significantly higher stress than boys, but the effect size was low. This result supports Hypothesis 2b, and indicated sex differences with respect to stress, which is in line with results of pre- vious studies (Rudolph & Hammen, 1999; Brooks, et al., 2002; Jose & Rat- cliffe, 2004; Fleshner, 2005; Hampel & Petermann, 2006; Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Increased stress during adolescence seems to be more common in girls than boys. This result is in accord with the findings of Jörngården, et al. (2006) and Nesheim and Haugland (2003), showing that boys gener- ally report better health and experience life more positively than girls of the same age, which may be a reflection of the findings (Rose & Rudolph, 2006) that boys are more likely to use humor as a response to stress. In the study by Moksnes, Byrne, et al. (2010), girls were found to be more responsive to different situations that may be recognized as stress- ful; girls scored higher on all dimensions of stress. A slightly different and possibly further explanation of this responsiveness could be that adoles- cent girls have increased risk for stress due to more highly developed in- terpersonal relationships than boys. Girls seem to experience more inter- personal stress, more negative interpersonal events, and greater increase in emotional problems than boys (Rudolph & Hammen, 1999; Rudolph, 2002; Hampel & Petermann, 2006; Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Girls seem to be more preoccupied with negative thoughts about their friends and ex- perience negative affects with peers and family groups. They also tend to I. E. O. MOLJORD, eT al. 642 experience more stress in the transition from preadolescence to adoles- cence than boys (Rudolph, 2002). There is one report of a statistically sig- nificant negative association between school stress and happiness (Nat- vig, et al., 2003), but the authors did not find sex differences for happiness. In the present study, boys showed a significantly higher mean on happi- ness than girls, which is in accordance with Hypothesis 2c. The effect size was moderate. The present study further investigated how physical activity, stress, and happiness might change during adolescence across the different age groups. When looking at the interaction of physical activity and age group, the mean scores on physical activity did not differ statistically significantly between the three age groups. These results therefore did not support Hy- pothesis 2d, and are not in line with previous findings in other studies of adolescents showing a clearer decrease in physical activity across the age span (Trost, et al., 2002; Duncan, et al., 2007; Sherar, et al., 2007). In the present study, the interaction of stress and age indicated a sig- nificant difference between the 15- to 16-yr.-olds and the 17- to 18-yr.-olds. When considering boys and girls separately, the girls’ mean stress scores increased across 13- to 14-yr. and 15- to 16-yr. age groups and then de- creased for the 17- to 18-yr. age group. The boys’ mean stress scores de- creased across age groups and was consistently lower than the girls’ mean stress scores. The effect sizes showed, however, that the differences in mean scores were small for the different age groups. Other studies (Ru- dolph, 2002; Jose & Ratcliffe, 2004) have found that stress increased during the adolescent period, which corresponds with the mean for girls between 13 and 16 years of age in the present study. Stress seems to fluctuate with age in a quite specific pattern and is in line with Hypothesis 2d. The inter- action of happiness and age showed no statistically significant difference. Happiness ratings may not have fluctuated with age; this is not in line with Hypothesis 2d. When investigating Hypothesis 3, the interaction ef- fect of Sex by Age by Stress on physical activity and happiness, there was no support for the hypothesis. The strengths of the present study are the large sample size, the high response rate, and the relatively low rate of missing data with a random pattern. The study has some limitations concerning the possibility of drawing general conclusions. Firstly, the sample is drawn from one sin- gle county in Norway. In order to minimize the problems rising from a homogeneous sample, the study would have had to employ schools from six very different municipalities across the county, from coastal munici- palities to municipalities in the mountains. The study is based on self- report data with only one time assessment of subjective experiences of happiness, stress, and participation in physical activity. This methodology involves possible over- or underestimates, which can contribute to bias STRESS AND HAPPINESS AMONG ADOLESCENTS 643 and misclassifications. However, the method is often used and seems to give a fairly good indication of the associations between physical activity, stress, and happiness (Brooks, et al., 2002; Haugland, et al., 2003; Nesheim & Haugland, 2003; Gerber & Pühse, 2008; Moksnes, Moljord, et al., 2010). Physical activity was measured on a single item, which measured the frequency (days per week) and duration (hours and minutes). The use of scales or complex measures might have led to an increased estimate of re- liability. Haugland, et al. (2003), Gerber and Pühse (2008), and Moksnes, et al. (2010) have, however, measured physical activity by using one sin- gle item. The ideal measure of physical activity would include items of frequency, intensity, and duration (Shephard, 2003). Physical activity was measured based on physical activity during the last 4 wk., stress during the last year, and happiness during the last week. These differences may have been reflected in the results. In future studies, objective measure- ment of physical activity would be an alternative to traditional self-report methods or a combination of both methods. This would imply a consider- able use of time and other resources, which are usually not available. In conclusion, adolescents with high-to-moderate self-reported phys- ical activity reported significantly lower stress and higher happiness than adolescents with low self-reported physical activity. There seems to be no important sex difference in frequency of physical activity in this sample. Girls reported more stress than boys, and boys greater happi- ness than girls. No significant differences were found among the differ- ent age groups with respect to physical activity. Reported stress, however, decreased for girls from 15–16 to 17–18 years of age, while for boys stress decreased from 13 to 14 years. No statistically significant differences were found among the different age groups on scores of happiness. High or moderate frequency of physical activity seems to be important for ado- lescents’ health and well-being. Therefore, focus on physical activity in school and in leisure time activity is important to promote motivation and interest in participation. REFERENCES Allison, P. D. (2001) Missing data. Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage. Anderssen, S. A., & Strømme, S. B. (2001) Fysisk aktivitet og helse anbefalinger [Physical activity and health recommendations]. Tidsskrift for Den Norske Lege- Download 306.2 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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