Recent insights into polysaccharide-based hydrogels and their potential applications in food sector: a review
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Fig. 1. Diagrammatic representation of the synthesis of hydrogels from monomer.
A. Manzoor et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 213 (2022) 987–1006 994 crystallization under normal physiological conditions. Similarly, hydrogen bonds are involved during the complex formation of Poly- ethylene Glycol (PEG) with Poly Methacrylic Acid (PMA) and Poly Acrylic Acid (PAA) where in the carboxylic group and oxygen from PMA and PEG respectively undergo hydrogen bonding. Operations such as freeze-thawing can result in a highly elastic and strong gel. 2.1.1. Stereo complex formation The production of stereo complexes is also used to make hydrogels. This method relies on synergistic interactions between polymer chains or tiny molecules with distinct stereochemistry but the same chemical composition [117] . Denaturing agents, such as organic solvents, cross- linking agents, and the creation of hydrophobic domains, are not used in the process. This method produces gels that are highly biodegradable and biocompatible. 2.1.2. Charge interactions A hydrogel can be created when two oppositely charged polymers or a polymer and another tiny molecule contact. The crosslinking of elastin-like polypeptides by electrostatic interactions between cationic lysine residues and anionic organophosphorus crosslinker under specific physiological circumstances is an example of physically crosslinked hydrogels produced by this approach [118] . To distribute therapeutic drugs and certain macromolecules, charge interaction crosslinking of microgels and nanogels can be done. 2.1.3. Crystallization Crystallization can also be used to make physically crosslinked hydrogels. Physically crosslinked poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogels are one example. PVA is a water-soluble polymer that forms a gel in its aqueous solution at ambient temperature. These hydrogels had limited mechanical strength, but after freezing and thawing an aqueous polymer solution, a strong and highly elastic gel was created [119] . The molec- ular weight of PVA, its concentration in water, the number and length of freeze-thaw cycles, and the temperature are all important elements that determine the properties of the produced gel. 2.2. Chemical The other method, chemical cross-linkages, involves polymerization such as addition, condensation, gamma, electron beam, and chain- growth polymerization for hydrogel polymerization. This kind of poly- merization employs mechanisms such as anionic, free radical, controlled free radical, and cationic involving initiation, propagation, and termi- nation steps. During the hydrogel synthesis through chain-growth polymerization, monomer units are attached to the active sites created by free radicals through the initiation step resulting in the chain for- mation. The synthesis of PVA-based hydrogels uses radical polymeri- zation while free radical is used for the Poly (N-isopropyl acrylamide) hydrogel. These gels with chemical cross-linkages are called chemical gels. Covalent cross-links with high bond strength and stability are most prevalent in chemical hydrogels [120] . Among enzymes, Trans- glutaminase (TGase) is reported as the most used cross-linking enzyme Download 1.62 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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