Russia's Cosmonauts Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center
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medicine research, vestibular function research and bed rest study facilities. Though it is not aimed at foreign crew members, it does feature elements of the training of Japan 89
NASA astronauts and Russian cosmonauts and cooperative programmes are feasible. Weightless Environmental Test Building is a 16-metre diameter, 10.5-metre deep water immersion facility that can hold a full-size mock-up of Kibo to aid EVA simulations. This could be used to train international partner crew members (including cosmonauts) on Kibo EVA operations, as well as Japanese astronauts. COSMONAUT TRAINING GOES INTERNATIONAL For over thirty years, the training of Russia's cosmonauts was largely conducted in secret and inside the Cosmonaut Training Centre, well away from foreign view unless specially invited. With the desire to offer commercial deals to foreign countries and participation in the ISS programme, the controlled opening up of the TsPK centre was also supplemented by the need to send cosmonauts abroad to train on foreign space equipment and procedures. This not only challenged the technical skills of the cosmonauts and Russian training staff, but also their personal and team working philosophy. This expansion not only enriches the Russian training programme, but also broadens the experience and depth of knowledge of those who participate, and in turn supports a greater return from each mission. REFERENCES 1 Personal visit to IMBP facilities by the authors 17 June 2003, information provided during an interview with Dr Irina P Ponomareva, who was the Chief researcher and member of the Russian Tsiolkovskiy Academy of Sciences State Research Centre for IMBP. 2 The Rocket Men, Rex Hall, David Shayler, Springer-Praxis 2001 pp 131±132 3 Simulation of Extended Isolation: Advances and Problems, Ed V.M. Baranov, Associate of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Moscow 2001 4 Information provided during a tour of Zvezda facilities by David J Shayler and Bert Vis, 16 June 2003 5 Telephone interview with Andre Kuipers by Bert Vis, May 2005 6 ESA magazine On Station, No 18, November 2004, various articles 7 Astronaut Training Centre for the European ISS contributions Columbus module and ATV, Peter Elchler et al, paper presented at the 54th IAC Congress, Bremen, Germany, 29 September±3 October 2003; ESA On Station, Issue no 18 November 2004 8 Interview with Frank E. Hughes, former Chief of the Space Flight Training Division of the Mission Operations Directorate (JSC-DT), Moscow, 10 April 1998 9 Canadian Space Agency website, http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/eng/astronauts/osm_system 10 ITAR-TASS news release 29 May 2003 11 Astronaut Team Training In Canada, CSA Backgrounders, http://www.space.gc.ca/asc/ eng/media/backgounders/2004/0122.asp 12 Japanese Space Agency (formerly NASDA, now JAXA) website, http:iss.sfo.jaxa.jp/ Astro/report/2003/0307_e.html and http:iss.sfo.jaxa.jp/Astro/report/2004/0402_e.html 13 Japanese Space Agency website, http://iss.sfo.jaxa.jp/ssip/index_e.html 90 Other national and international facilities
Survival training Survival training is overseen by the Third Directorate of the Cosmonaut Training Centre. This department is currently headed by Colonel Yuri Gidzenko, a veteran of three space flights, and it has previously been headed by both flown and unflown cosmonauts, including Yevgeniy Khludeyev, Yuri Malyshev and Nikolay Grekov. The department occupies one of the buildings in the training centre and survival training is conducted in cooperation with the Federal Aerospace Search and Rescue Administration. The training enables the crews to acquire the skills needed in the event of an off-nominal landing (or splashdown). THE ROLE OF THE THIRD DIRECTORATE Survival training is an important part of the basic (OKP) training of all cosmonauts. It is repeated on a regular basis during a cosmonaut's career, and when they are assigned to a new crew, they also complete a new cycle of such training. Every Soyuz craft carries a Granat-6 (Pomegranate) survival pack, which includes a `Forel' (Trout) hydro-suit ± a one-piece orange nylon flotation suit with attached rubber soled feet and a hood trimmed with `CCCP'. The suit contains a `Neva' inflatable collar with an emergency mouthpiece, emergency beacon and a signal device on the shoulder. It also has rubberised cuffs, Velcro-close pockets on the legs (with ten pairs of small rings on the legs and eight pairs of grommets on the boots), and a pair of brown jersey mittens with separate thumb and index finger stalls, with watertight cuffs and adjustable orange nylon wrist straps. There is also a TZK-14 cold weather suit, with a royal blue nylon zip front anorak with attached mittens. This has two slash pockets with contrasting zips and a draw closed waist. Also included is a wool knit balaclava, a lined wool knit cap with button flaps, wool gloves, one pair of shearling socks and one pair of nylon over boots, elasticised at the top with Velcro- close at the heels. There are three other orange nylon packages in the pack. These contain survival equipment including a large canteen, a soft flask, dried food, a medical kit, a frying pan, signals and flares, a machete (which also doubles as the shoulder rest of the rifle/shotgun), a Makarov pistol with cartridges (TP-82m), a foraging bag, fishing tackle, and metal wire garrottes for use as a saw as well as for hunting. The combination of the `Forel' suit and thermal suit is intended to keep the wearer alive for up to twelve hours, if needed, in water of 28C, with an ambient air Survival equipment hanging in an office in the 3rd Directorate department temperature of -108C (148F). Coupled with the shelter of the descent craft, it is hoped that the clothing and supplies could support a cosmonaut for up to three days in conditions of severe cold. 1 The package weighs around 32.5 kg and is located in two triangular carrying cases that wedge snugly between the cosmonauts' seats. The package is produced by the Zvezda Production Association. The first kits, called NAZ (portable emergency kit), were produced by Zvezda in 1960±61 and were carried on Vostok craft. 2 After the problems encountered during the ballistic return of the TMA capsule containing the ISS-6 expedition crew of Bowersox, Pettit and Budarin, a satellite phone system has since been added to the kit. Survival training is divided into a number of different aspects: . Winter training . Mountain training 92 Survival training
. Desert training . Swamp training . Sea recovery training . Parachute jumping . Zero-g aircraft Other types of emergency situation are covered with the use of simulators and the centrifuge. This training is covered elsewhere in this book, as is the use of zero-g aircraft. Winter survival training There are examples from the 1960s of Soviet and Russian cosmonauts undergoing simulations in winter conditions. Pictures of these simulations show cosmonauts training for Voskhod and Soyuz missions with their craft on its side in the snow. In the 1980s and 1990s, cosmonauts were regularly taken to Vorkuta in the Arctic for their winter survival training. A Soyuz capsule was set up on the snow and the cosmonauts were expected to stay there for two days. Before this, they would have already undergone some training to prepare them for the prospect of a Soyuz being stranded in deep snow on return to Earth. At Vorkuta, they had to build an igloo to provide shelter, as conditions in the Soyuz capsule itself are extreme. They also constructed a tepee, using the parachute and an `A' frame hut built from trees they had cut down. The parachute could also be cut up to act as cover. The specialists in charge of this training are examining the psychological qualities of the crew, as well as their physical shape, but the Russians have planned Soyuz emergency landing sites in both Siberia and Canada, where these conditions are most likely to be encountered. The cosmonauts are medically examined every evening. This training mirrors a real situation encountered by the Voskhod 2 crew, who made an emergency landing in the North Urals where the temperature was twenty degrees below zero and with half a metre of snow on the ground. It took ground services two days to find the crew, and this was by ski teams as the helicopters could not fly due to the weather conditions. These extreme conditions are illustrated in an interview with Sergey Bedziouk, a candidate to join the Energiya cosmonaut team in the late 1970s and a member of the design bureau's flight test department. `We tested the light variant of cosmonaut equipment after an emergency landing under tundra conditions. The temperature was minus 65 degrees Celsius and the equipment was very light, especially with regard to clothes. Using a knife we were forced to make multi-layered covers out of the landing vehicle's drogue chute and build an igloo in the morning. Food was another problem. All the water froze immediately and the device for warming it up had a hole in the middle of it. The Institute of Psychology of the Academy of Sciences conducted an experiment called `continuous staying awake regime'. We had to work continuously for three to four days without closing our eyes for even a minute.' 3 Currently, crews going to the ISS are left in a remote part of the grounds of Star City, but the Russians are also continuing to develop new systems for winter rescue. In early 2004, this was covered in a BBC monitoring report. `Russian athletes flew The role of the Third Directorate 93
Survival training in 1970. (from left) Cosmonauts Vladimir Kozlov, Yuri Romanenko, Boris Volynov (the group training commander) and Anatoliy Berezovoy Training in the winter of 1970 94 Survival training into the Antarctic today to make the first parachute jump from a super-light aircraft in the history of the icy continent.' The expedition's leader, Aleksandr Begak, told ITAR-TASS by telephone from the Russian research station of Novolazarevskaya; `The members of the expedition, who flew into the Antarctic, have started testing new means enabling cosmonauts to survive in extreme conditions and are in preparation for parachute jumps from a super-light aircraft. `Expedition members intend, for the first time in the Antarctic's history, to fly what they call a paracraft (in Russian, a paralet) ± a super-light vehicle with soft wings and a 32-horsepower petrol engine. The flight will start the moment the wind becomes a little milder. At the moment, the wind speed is up to 15 metres per second. The area around the station is sunny and the temperature is minus 14 degrees Centigrade. Expedition members will perform a few parachute jumps from the paracraft. They will be jumping from the height of 1,200 metres, wearing oxygen masks and heat-shielding suits from the cosmonaut survival kit.' Valeriy Trunov, head of the Cosmonaut Training Centre's survival department, who also took part in the expedition, told ITAR-TASS, `The modified heat-shielding suit from the Granat-6 portable cosmonaut survival kit was designed by Star City specialists together with Russian scientists. In this suit, it is possible to spend 72 hours at a 60 degree temperature with minimal mobility.' Trunov also commented that the suits the cosmonauts wear during landing are `fairly light and do not save from cold. In order to survive a landing in a remote area in winter, heat-shielding Training in the winter of 1990. (from left) Talgat Musabayev, who was training for TM 13, and German astronauts Reinhold Ewald (centre) and Klaus Flade The role of the Third Directorate 95 Winter training camp suits are included in the survival kit.' Under Russian safety rules, rescuers must spot the landing capsule and reach the landing site within three days. In addition, Trunov said that a new Russian remote medical control system, which has no analogue in the world, would be tested in the Antarctic's extreme conditions. `This is a special belt with sensors and a radio transmitter, whereby all information on a cosmonaut's state of health can be bounced off a satellite for at least 48 hours. In the event of an emergency landing or descent in an unintended area, doctors will be able to continuously monitor the cosmonaut's state of health.' 4 Desert training and the heat chamber Cosmonauts are exposed to extended testing in a heat chamber based at the Cosmonaut Training Centre. This simulates desert conditions, as well as testing the cosmonaut's mental condition. The chamber is approximately five metres by three metres and also doubles as the isolation chamber. The tests are monitored with the aid of instruments and observation (via a window from the control room) by staff from the medical department of the training centre. The purpose of the training is to test the cosmonaut's ability to work in humidity and in high temperature conditions. It also brings to light deviations in the cosmonaut's behaviour or character which cannot be detected in any other manner. In the 1960s, the testing regime was very rigorous, with subjects spending many days in the chamber. They had to endure temperatures of about 408C, adapt to changes in the gas composition inside the chamber and endure temperatures of up to 808C while wearing fur lined flight clothing. 96 Survival training
Desert training An article written in 1991 describes such a test, undertaken by cosmonaut Valeriy V. Illarionov. The air temperature was 608C and a humidity level of thirty per cent was maintained inside the chamber. A powerful fan blew hot air into the chamber. Illarionov had pickups attached to his body and an electro-thermocouple was placed under his tongue. The test was fairly short, lasting only a few hours, and was observed through a window in the wall and monitored by doctors from the staff of TsPK.
Cosmonauts also now have to undertake a 24-hour survival test in the desert. This type of training started in the late 1970s with a capsule that was put into the desert; the same type of capsule that is used in sea and snow training. The cosmonauts had to spend time in the capsule, before exiting and constructing a tent and hammock using the parachute material. Their supplies included a radio, weapons, a flashlight, food and water. They also learned to build a fire to combat the cold nights. The site they used in the 1980s was near the town of Mary, which is in the Kara Kum desert in Turkmenistan. Since the break up of the Soviet Union, cosmonauts have conducted this type of training at the Baykonur Cosmodrome. 5 Mountain training Cosmonauts have also simulated landing in mountainous areas. This training was similar to that undertaken in deserts and in the snow and again proved useful during The role of the Third Directorate 97
Mountain training an actual mission when Vasiliy Lazarev and Oleg Makarov landed in the Altai Mountains in April 1975. The Buran cosmonauts did their training in the mountains of the Pamirs, from the city of Frunze to Issyk-Kul, along with some colleagues from Energiya. The trek on foot lasted seven days. The Buran group also conducted a mountain ski trip in the Dombai region. Swamp training This type of simulation uses the same type of capsule, called Ocean, as they do for sea training. It is not clear whether every crew undertakes this training, nor its exact location. Sea recovery training Sea survival training is organised at the Special Survival Centre for Air Force flight personnel, located twenty kilometres from Anapa. Though the Soyuz is designed to come down on land, the Russians simulate the possibility and dangers of a sea landing. A capsule with a cosmonaut crew inside is dropped by crane from a ship called the `Sevan' into the Black Sea near Sochi. The crew learns how to don their orange `Forel' survival suits and then exit the craft and get into an inflatable dinghy while inflating the suits. During this test, the crew is monitored by divers and specialists in the sea and in boats. After two hours bobbing 98 Survival training Swamp training around on the Black Sea in the Soyuz and donning this extreme weather and water survival gear, the cosmonauts are very close to heat exhaustion. Pulse rates can reach 180 or higher and many cosmonauts suffer from motion sickness. Another option for this training is that the crew can be recovered by helicopter. In this case, they use a blue painted Soyuz capsule called Ocean and there is also an orange version with a dolphin painted on the side. The crew also practices how to keep together in water while awaiting rescue, using a water tank on the deck of the ship. Before the craft is put into the water, the crew will simulate all their actions on the deck of the ship using the same capsule. This is called `dry training' and the craft is shaded by the parachute. Some of the Americans have done this test in the Hydrolab at Star City before simulating it in the Black Sea. Again, this training has proven invaluable in a real situation, as Soyuz 23 landed in high winds at night, in the snow in Lake Tengiz in Kazakhstan. The Soyuz sank and the crew had to be rescued by some very brave helicopter crews. The lunar version of Soyuz, called Zond, was recovered from the Pacific Ocean after it returned from lunar orbit. This recovery was monitored by an Australian Air Force plane, much to the annoyance of the ship's crew. The lunar training group undertook major sea landing training in preparation for their anticipated flights in Zond spacecraft. Sadly, at the end of one test, cosmonaut candidate Sergey Vozovikov was killed when he got caught up in fisherman's nets and was drowned. There were attempts to save him, but to no avail. He had decided to use some of the equipment from the NAZ (portable emergency supplies) to go fishing to mark the end of a successful test. 6 The role of the Third Directorate 99 OKB-52 cosmonaut candidate Vladimir Gevorkyan undergoing sea training In 1963, when Tereshkova was undergoing her sea recovery training for her Vostok mission, the sea was very calm, so the Soviet commander hired a number of motor boats to pass very close to the craft at full throttle, which made the sea very choppy and made Tereshkova sea sick. Sea recovery training can be combined with mountain trekking and climbing, as this site is very close to hand. Parachute jumping All Soviet and Russian cosmonauts undergo extensive courses in specialist parachute training. Parachute training is an important psychological aspect of the training programme, helping to prepare them to deal with the dangerous nature of their job as a cosmonaut. Many cosmonauts have gained the Instructor Parachutist award as a result of this training, which includes free-fall jumps as well as those from helicopters. Several of the cosmonauts have done over 500 jumps. During the first phase of parachute training between 1960 and 1963 (overseen by Colonel Nikolay Nikitin), the training was done in cycles of a few jumps at a time. Table 4 shows the parachute jumps undertaken by cosmonaut trainee Valentin Filatyev in the period 1960±1963. It illustrates the cycles and development of the parachute training. Cosmonauts seem to spend five days to a week doing two jumps a day and most of the 1960 selection would have done this sort of schedule, although after Gagarin flew on Vostok, he was banned from doing jumps and only resumed in 1964 after a long campaign. On 28 May 1963, the cosmonauts' parachute instructor Nikolay Nikitin was killed after his parachute tangled in the air with that of another member of the drop 100 Survival training
Table 4 Parachute Jumps by Filatyev during 1960±1963 First Jump Second Jump Date
Aircraft Altitude
Delay Altitude
Delay 1960 Apr 18 Antonov AN-2 800 m
none 800 m
none 1960 Apr 19 Antonov AN-2 800 m
none 800 m
none 1960 Apr 21 Antonov AN-2 800 m
none 1960 Apr 22 Antonov AN-2 800 m
none 800 m
none 1960 Apr 23 Antonov AN-2 800 m
none 1960 Apr 23 Antonov AN-2 800 m
none 800 m
none 1960 Apr 25 Antonov AN-2 1,000 m
5 sec 1960 Apr 26 Antonov AN-2 1,100 m
10 sec 1960 May 3 Lisunov LI-2 1,300 m
15 sec 1,300 m
15 sec 1960 May 4 Lisunov LI-2 1,300 m
15 sec 1960 May 7 Lisunov LI-2 1,300 m
15 sec 1,300 m
15 sec 1960 May 8 Lisunov LI-2 1,600 m
20 sec 1,600 m
20 sec 1960 May 9 Lisunov LI-2 1,600 m
20 sec 1,600 m
20 sec 1960 May 10 Lisunov LI-2 1,600 m
20 sec 1,600 m
20 sec 1960 May 11 Lisunov LI-2 1,800 m
25 sec 2,100 m
30 sec 1960 May 13 Mil MI-4 2,100 m
30 sec 2,600 m
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