Russia's Cosmonauts Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center
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on So yuz TMA 1 268 Joint programmes The STS-91 crew are briefed prior to entering the Systems Integration Facility at JSC. Standing at rear wearing the training version of the Shuttle launch and entry (`pumpkin') suit is veteran cosmonaut Valeriy Ryumin. (Courtesy NASA) selection was her previous experience in orbit aboard Mir. Kondakova was the wife of former cosmonaut, and leading Energiya official, Valeriy Ryumin, and according to one source, she was invited to join the STS-86 crew by Charles Precourt after he had met her during a trip to Russia. The obvious political advantage of this was quickly seized upon by NASA and it was officially approved, even though this meant one of the NASA astronauts would lose their seat on this mission. This echoed comments from Irina Pronina, who had stated that no female cosmonaut ever received a mission assignment without influence! 19 For both launch and landing, Kondakova remained in Seat 6 on the middeck. Her crew responsibilities included opening and closing the payload bay doors and radiators inside the payload bay doors, as well as photo and TV documentation during the mission, contingency EVA crew member IV2, radio communications with the EO-23 Mir crew (Tsibliyev and Lazutkin) during rendezvous and docking of the Shuttle, supporting in-flight maintenance, the post-orbit insertion operations, and Cosmonauts on the Shuttle (Shuttle-Mir) 269 de-orbit preparations. She also supported the set up of Spacehab shortly after orbital insertion, and the operation of refrigeration and freezers in the module, and was responsible for the deactivation and stowage of equipment in Spacehab in preparation for the return to Earth. On Spacehab, she participated in the operation of thirteen Bio rack experiments and the CREAM risk mitigation experiments on the middeck of the orbiter, as well as two DSOs. During the transfer operations at Mir, she supported the transfer of Russian and powered hardware between the spacecraft, assisted Mike Foale in joint US-Russian science experiments during the docked phase, and was crew representative for Russian language issues. 20 STS-84 was flown between 15 and 24 May 1997. STS-86 Vladimir Titov remained at JSC after his flight on STS-63, while Krikalev (supporting Shuttle-Mir activities as a consultant) returned to TsPK to begin training as a member of the first ISS crew, to which he was named on 30 January 1996. 21 In
a crew member for STS-86 in November 1996. On 6 December, he was named MS1 for STS-86, the seventh docking mission, with Jim Wetherbee (Commander), Mike Bloomfield (Pilot), Scott Parazynski (MS2) and French astronaut Jean-Loup ChreÂtien, a veteran of both Salyut 7 and Mir, as MS3. Titov and Wetherbee had flown together on STS-63 and Wetherbee invited him to fly on STS-86, apparently supported by the Americans, even though the Russians did not want to assign a cosmonaut to this flight. Persuasion from the Americans allowed Titov to fly a second Shuttle mission (capitalising on his previous training) and to perform an EVA. 19
Titov sat on the flight deck (Seat 3) for ascent and on the middeck (Seat 5) for entry. As MS1, he had more ascent responsibilities than during his first mission on the Shuttle, supporting the `orbiter crew' during phases of the ascent to orbit. He was also responsible for the transfer of logistics across to Mir, activation and deactivation of Spacehab science and systems, including in-flight maintenance on the module, and Earth observation. Titov was the crew representative for Russian language issues and was responsible for the communications and instrumentation, as well as prime on opening the payload bay doors and supporting closing of the doors towards the end of the mission. He ensured that the External Tank (ET) connection doors were closed at separation from the fuel tank and photographed the separated tank as the orbiter moved into orbit. His other orbiter responsibilities included cable configurations, and supporting IFM and Waste Collection System (WCS) issues. He also worked on post-insertion activities and was prime for de-orbit preparations. During Mir operations, he handled communication with the EO-24 crew (A. Solovyov and Vinogradov) and operated the hand-held laser for range finding during docking. On the science objectives, Titov was assigned to support four Detailed Text Objectives (DTO), one DSO, three Risk Mitigation Experiments (RME) and one GAS Canister payload. His major contribution to the mission was the 5-hour 1-minute EVA on 1 October 1997 with Parazynski, wearing US EMU suits to deploy and retrieve equipment and experiments on the US Docking Module. The STS-86 mission was flown between 26 September and 6 October 1997. 22 270 Joint programmes Valeriy Ryumin is seated in the Crew Compartment Trainer (CCT-2) in the Systems Integration Facility at JSC. At rear is astronaut Franklin Chang-Diaz. The simulation of launch and landing operations was completed during April 1998. (Courtesy NASA) STS-89 The NASA astronauts named to STS-89 (the eighth docking mission) on 4 March 1997 were Terrence Wilcutt (Commander), Joe Edwards (Pilot) James Reilly (MS1) Michael Anderson (MS2) and Bonnie Dunbar (MS3). 23 On 15 October, rookie cosmonaut Salizhan Sharipov was added to the crew as MS4. Three candidates (Sharipov, Morukov and Kotov) were identified a couple of months previously. 24 Apparently, NASA had now dropped the veteran cosmonaut rule for Shuttle assignments, but with only two docking missions to Mir remaining on the schedule, the Americans wanted a native Russian speaker on the last two missions, both as an aide to the transfer operations and as a safety element in case of further difficulties with the ageing station. It also would help to ease the transition from Mir Cosmonauts on the Shuttle (Shuttle-Mir) 271
over to ISS. Sharipov became the only rookie cosmonaut to fly on a Shuttle during the Shuttle-Mir programme. He was not in line for any crew assignment, had recently completed routine water egress and survival training in the Black Sea and was about to go on a family vacation during the summer of 1997 when Yuri Glazkov, director of cosmonaut training at TsPK, informed him that he was going to Houston for six month's Shuttle training and his holiday had been cancelled. The happy but surprised cosmonaut would be entering space probably three to five years before he expected to. He left for JSC in August 1997 (his wife would join him in December) and apparently found the English language lessons the hardest hurdle to overcome (in addition to Houston's heat and humidity), but he made excellent progress despite the short training period and again, NASA allowed for the cosmonaut's previous training at TsPK in lieu of full Ascan training. 25 Sharipov flew the ascent on Seat 6 and descent on Seat 7 on the middeck. He had minimal assignments on the crew, mainly configuring the middeck after post-orbit insertion and for de-orbit preparations. He was primarily responsible for the ergometer and assisted with photo documentation and TV activities throughout the mission. During Mir transfer operations, he assisted in the transfer of water supplies, the IELK, cold stowage, gyrodome and batteries across to the station, supported a few middeck science payloads, and participated in Earth observations and the photo survey of Mir. STS-89 was flown between 22 and 31 January 1998. NASA archives reveal that Sharipov had very little input into crew tasks ± probably because of his late assignment to the crew (although he still logged 140 hours crew training), his difficulty in mastering English, or politics. 26 STS-91 The final Shuttle docking mission was flown between 2 and 12 June 1998. The NASA crew assigned on 23 October 1997 was Charles Precourt (Commander), Dominic Gorie (Pilot), Franklin Chang-Diaz (MS1), Wendy Lawrence (MS2), and Janet Kavandi (MS4). When NASA offered a seat on the final Shuttle docking mission with Mir to the Russians, Valeriy Ryumin nominated himself (with the support of Energiya). On 5 September 1997, he began NASA MS training, having been identified to the crew in August 1997. This would be a challenge, because he could not speak English, was seriously overweight (a potential safety risk for emergency situations, although by January 1998 he had lost 25 kg in weight) and had been out of space flight training for eighteen years. On the other hand, he had helped design the Salyut and Mir stations, had been a cosmonaut since 1973 and had been involved with Energiya (formerly OKB-1) since 1966. A three-time veteran cosmonaut, he had also accumulated over a year aboard the Salyut 6 space station and, in logged time, was more experienced than all his American crewmates put together. His primary role on the flight would be to personally examine the condition and status of Mir after twelve years in space and to apply these findings to future space stations. He was also to supply information to support the decommissioning of Mir as soon as possible to make way for ISS, but after NASA took him to the station, he reported that it was in fine condition and proclaimed it should continue to be occupied (which it was for another three years), the exact opposite of what NASA wanted to hear! 19 272 Joint programmes Vladimir Titov is seated on the middeck of Discovery on Pad 39B at the Cape during January 1995. He was participating the Terminal Countdown Demonstration Test (TCDT) dress rehearsal for the launch the following month Ryumin's crew assignments on the mission included supporting opening and closing of the payload bay doors, IFM, photo and TV documentation objectives, post-insertion and de-orbit preparations, and radio communications with Mir resident crew EO-25 (Musabayev and Budarin). He also supported the activation, operation and deactivation of the Spacehab payload and experiments, the transfer of ambient and Russian hardware across to the station, the retrieval of Mir water samples, and Earth observation objectives, and was support (IV-2) for contingency EVA operations. After this mission, the way was clear to begin ISS flight operations, which began five months later with the launch of the first element from Russia, the Zarya module. 27 Cosmonauts on the Shuttle (Shuttle-Mir) 273 AMERICANS AT TSPK Following the visits of American astronauts to TsPK during 1973±1975 as part of the ASTP training preparations, there was a gap of nearly twenty years before the next American astronauts undertook training sessions at the Cosmonaut Training Centre. This time however, they did not receive simple familiarisation training on Russian space hardware, but a full training programme to qualify them for resident missions on space station Mir under the joint Shuttle-Mir programme. As with the Russians training in the United States, the Americans encountered language and social hurdles to overcome, and periods of adjustment, isolation, and at times, frustration, during long missions onboard the station between 1995 and 1998. Though each mission was a challenge in different ways, the experience was vital for preparing Americans to work on international crews on ISS. The only experience the Americans had in space station operations were the three Skylab missions of 1973/4, lasting 28, 59 and 84 days. COSMONAUT TRAINING FOR ASTRONAUTS All eleven NASA astronauts who were selected for long duration flights to Mir were trained as Flight Engineer-2 cosmonauts in two stages. Phase 1 included training as part of a group of astronauts, with Phase 2 as part of a specific crew. 3 The eleven astronauts were Norman Thagard, Bonnie Dunbar, Shannon Lucid, John Blaha, Jerry Linenger, Michael Foale, James Voss, David Wolf, Andrew Thomas, Wendy Lawrence and Scott Parazynski (who also completed some training for a long duration mission but his training hours were not recorded in the report). They pioneered long-term American international space flight training and also moved international cosmonaut training into a new era at TsPK. Astronaut Mir assignments The first astronauts assigned to Mir training were Norman Thagard (prime) and Bonnie Dunbar (back-up), who were officially announced on 3 February 1994. They had been preparing for departure since the end of 1993, taking language studies at the US Army's Defence Language Institute (DLI) in Monterey, California. They departed for Star City later in February 1994 and, after completing the Phase 1 training programme, they joined the cosmonauts assigned to Mir 18 and 19 for crew training. 28 Mir 18
Crew Cdr
FE-1 NASA
Prime Dezhurov
Strekalov Thagard
BUp Solovyov A. Budarin Dunbar
Mir 19 Crew
Cdr FE1
FE2 Prime
Solovyov A. Budarin
± BUp
Onufriyenko Usachev
± 274 Joint programmes The first NASA astronaut launched (14 March 1995) on a mission outside of the United States (Soyuz TM 21), and the only NASA Mir astronaut to be launched from Baykonur, was Thagard, who flew a 115-day mission as part of the Mir 18 crew. Dunbar flew on the STS-71 mission in July 1995, the first Shuttle docking mission that returned Thagard and his colleagues and delivered the Mir 19 cosmonauts (the only Mir crew to be launched to the station by the Shuttle). In early plans, Dunbar could have remained on Mir replacing Thagard, but this option was not pursued. 29 The second Shuttle-Mir docking mission (STS-74 in November 1995) did not include any American resident astronauts, but from STS-76 in March 1996 until the ninth and final Shuttle docking mission (STS-91 June 1998), all NASA Mir residents flew to and from the station aboard an American Shuttle. The NASA-2 training group was named as Shannon Lucid and John Blaha (the only `pilot' astronaut selected for Mir residency crew training) on 3 November 1994 and by 30 March 1995, the group was expanded to prepare for a further three-mission plan announced on 14 December 1994. 30 Mission Prime Back-up
Launch Land
Duration 1 Thagard Dunbar (TM 21)
STS-71 3 months
2 Lucid
Blaha STS-76
STS-79 5 months
3 Linenger
Parazynski STS-79
STS-81 4 months
4 Blaha
Lawrence STS-81
STS-84 6 months
5 Parazynski Lawrence? STS-84
STS-86 4 months
The training plan projected Russian language studies at DLI, then a two-phase cosmonaut training programme at Star City, with Shuttle training (mainly ascent and decent) at JSC and KSC in America. The back-up position to Mission 5 was a dead-end role and was most likely to have been filled by Lawrence in order to cut training costs. On 14 October 1995, NASA announced that Parazynski would discontinue Mir training following concerns over his ability to fit safely in the Soyuz decent vehicle due to his height. A preliminary evaluation had cleared him for training, but further evaluation into height increases caused by zero-g (2 cm average), deceleration loads, sitting height issues, and the safety margins against injury meant that the module could not accommodate Parazynski comfortably or safely in a Sokol suit. According to preliminary training reports, the astronaut had scored highly in performance and had earned the respect of the Russian training staff. A second blow befell the group on 24 October 1995 when, just prior to her departure for Russia, NASA announced that Lawrence would discontinue Mir residency crew training while NASA discussed the problem that she did not meet the minimum height requirements for Soyuz training with the Russians. The system that was originally developed and approved by both the Russians and Americans stipulated that the flight of an astronaut on a residency crew would be preceded by back-up training, which ensured a longer joint training programme. However, the decision not to fly Dunbar (who probably would have been backed up by Lucid), the removal of Parazynski, and subsequent alterations in the training cycle and dates of arrival at Star City, prevented the full back-up system from being Cosmonaut training for astronauts 275
NASA astronauts Thagard (l) and Dunbar inside the Soyuz TM simulator at TsPK, September 1994. Both are wearing Sokol pressure garments. (Courtesy NASA) implemented. As a result, NASA reassigned the training group to accommodate the departure of Parazynski and Lawrence, with Mike Foale and Jim Voss brought in to replace them. Mission
Prime Back-up
Launch Land
Duration 2 Lucid Blaha STS-76
STS-79 5 months
3 Blaha
Linenger STS-79
STS-81 4 months
4 Linenger
Foale STS-81
STS-84 6 months
5 Foale
Voss STS-84
STS-86 4 months
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