Russia's Cosmonauts Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center
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remarked, `It should be noted that no one really knew what to expect and the instructors had little or no time to prepare for this task.' The trainers were tasked with training Krikalev and Titov to a level where they could make CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) screen interface inputs, could read, understand and implement the Flight Data File, and could be conversant with orbiter systems and workings to be able to contribute to flight activities, as well as their assigned tasks on orbit, such as RMS operator. Again, initial meetings via an interpreter were at times challenging, with old training schedules discarded and rewritten from scratch. Severance observed, `There were quite a few times when the student and interpreter would have a lengthy conversation in Russian and eventually present a question to me. I never knew if the interpreter was attempting to answer the question on his own, or if the student was trying to explain enough technical information so that the interpreter could then more accurately ask me a question.' Though their command of English improved, Severance wrote that, at first, Krikalev was easier to teach because his command of English was better than Titov's, whose initial skill was extremely limited. At the start of training, they started lessons with Krikalev acting as interpreter for Titov. Krikalev also demonstrated the most hands-on approach to simulator time, whereas Titov wanted to observe at first 262 Joint programmes
and thus was much slower. This did change later, as the absence of an interpreter forced him to learn English much faster. Severance also observed that briefings needed to be streamlined to the essentials and recognised that the extensive space flight experience and cosmonaut training of both men allowed them to demonstrate `their extensive capabilities and intelligence once the language barrier was overcome.' This resulted in the cosmonauts offering great insight into the training protocol and coming up with questions that tasked the trainers. Severance observed that speaking slowly, clearly, and without too many acronyms or slang words helped the cosmonauts understand the sentence. Presenting `the big picture' also generated more detailed, and sometimes difficult, questions from the cosmonauts, but she noted that the trainers should be prepared to encourage such questions. She also found that reading the question to the interpreter helped with the translation and watching facial expressions closely revealed more than words could in several cases. She suggested developing a standard training flow for future Mission Specialists from foreign countries, standardising lessons and developing handouts for instructors as a reference to provide them with training methods and suggestions. She also suggested that the US/Russian technical library should be expanded. Dave Pitre, Comm Instructor His undated notes observed that the information that both cosmonauts could speak some English did prove a little optimistic, although `to their credit, it did not take them long to improve (their) skills. But it was not without pain.' He suggested that the ASTP technical directories were very useful and that a similar Shuttle Russian- English dictionary should be developed, perhaps on a computer disc which would be more accessible and portable. During single system training, it was found that free- form instruction was better than following the rigid training plan, and overall patience was important. In the SMS, with the student removed from the direct view of the instructors, the Russians were apprehensive at first and needed some encouragement to participate, but identifying responsibilities, and training and encouraging them, helped improve their confidence and abilities. Lisa Reed, SMS Team 6 Systems Instructor In her (undated) notes, she suggested that, in addition to the language barrier, the compressed training time added to the pressure for the cosmonauts to succeed. `There was so much more I would have liked to teach Titov and Krikalev but I just did not have time. Keeping the pace was hard on the instructors; I can only imagine what it must be like for Titov and Krikalev. I commend their efforts.' In general, she stated that, given the time and resources they had, the training team did an excellent job of training, but with a little more advanced notice, much more could have been done. `If we commit to training Russian cosmonauts or any other foreign crew, I highly recommend that (NASA) management look (at) the lessons learned and the recommendations given by the instructors.' Reinforcing the opinion of other instructors, Reed added that no information was passed to the SMS team on who would be trained and that they had to source a PAO press release to find out who was scheduled and what space flight experience they had. They were not informed Cosmonauts on the Shuttle (Shuttle-Mir) 263 exactly how to train the cosmonauts and the suggestion was made that `if the foreign students were introduced to our training processes before they ever walked through the door, this might help them understand more of the what, how and why we train as we do.' Reed also expressed frustration in the way the basic Shuttle training system was compressed into two months. The training team were asked to waive prerequisites and trim back their requirements as much as possible, but still provide a detailed overview for someone flying as a fully-fledged Mission Specialist. She explained that, taking the simulator element of a nominal NASA Ascan training as an example, it could take classes of eight hours, on consecutive days, spread over several weeks or months to develop understanding, even with students that could speak English. With the Russians, these classes were compressed into one working day! 11 It became obvious to the team that to schedule basic training early would be more beneficial and productive to all concerned. The Ascan training programme was `modified to fit' by trimming sections or adding abbreviated lessons, but to then try to use the formal workbooks with NASA jargon and abbreviations complicated the delivery process. The suggestion was to create a training flow for future international students that is suited to their particular instructional needs. What did work was assigning one SMS training team to work with the Russians, using familiar faces over time to bring out the confidence and elements of teamwork and team sprit from both sides. Reed observed that, for her team, interpreters or translators were cumbersome and time consuming, and it would be far better to teach English to the students first, and make translation reference documents more available for current systems. Class time frequently overran, but this should also be expected, and care should be taken to select instructors with proven communication skills and patience, especially in dealing with new foreign students. In summary, STS-60 Flight Section Head, Dennis Beckman, praised both his team and the cosmonauts for adapting a difficult situation to achieve excellent results, and cited the skills and abilities of both cosmonauts in persevering to overcome their training hurdles. `They are all to be commended for a difficult job well done.' Sergey Krikalev, the first Russian Shuttlenaut (STS-60) Krikalev was assigned to the prime crew of STS-60 to begin mission training with effect from 1 February 1993, with Titov as back-up also being prepared for his own flight aboard STS-63 (for which Krikalev would be back-up). The official announcement was made on 2 April 1994. 12 STS-60 was flown between 3 and 11 February 1994, carrying the retrievable Wake Shield Facility (a free-flyer disc designed to generate new semiconductor films for advanced electronics, although technical problems prevented its deployment on this mission) and the second flight of the commercially developed research facility, Spacehab. The mission was the 60th of the series and utilised Discovery (OV-103), on its 18th mission. Krikalev flew as MS4 and became the first Russian cosmonaut not to leave Earth for space from the Baykonur cosmodrome, and the first to launch, orbit and return solely on a foreign spacecraft and land outside Soviet or Russian territory. He logged just over 8 days 264 Joint programmes
and 7 hours in space and, ironically, also became the first cosmonaut who had received some limited Soviet Buran shuttle training to fly on a `Shuttle mission' ± even if it was an American one! Krikalev flew into space on the middeck (Seat 6) and swapped to Seat 3 on the flight deck for entry. According to the STS-60 crew task list, Krikalev was assigned a variety of responsibilities on the crew, reflecting the scope and depth of his training for the flight in such a short time. His orbiter tasks included responsibilities for photo and TV issues (back-up), in-flight maintenance (primary), and Earth observations (back-up). He was also assigned back-up responsibilities for both the Remote Manipulator System and for Spacehab systems. In payloads, he was back- up for the Wake Shield Facility, and in the Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, and held primary responsibilities for the Capillary Pumped Loop Experiment and GAS Bridge Assembly. Krikalev was also primarily responsible for the SAREX-II Shuttle amateur radio experiment and Aurora Photography Experiments (APE-B). Space- hab-2 consisted of twelve investigations, of which Krikalev was primarily responsible for four (Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Three-Dimensional Zero-gravity Accelerometer (3-DMA); Bio serve Pilot Lab (BPL); and Immune Response studies (IMMUNE-01)) and back-up on one (Astroculture Experiment ASC-3). For the joint US-Russian medical investigations (Detailed Supplementary Objectives, or DSO), Krikalev was a primary on DSO 204 (visual observations) and back-up on DSO 200 (radiological) and DSO 201 (sensory). 13 Titov flies on STS-63 It was agreed that Titov would fly on STS-63, a Mir rendezvous mission as a dress rehearsal of future Shuttle docking missions. Originally planned for June 1994, the mission was delayed until February 1995 because of the inability to fill the Spacehab module with experiments. The crew was named on 8 September 1993 14 , and
consisted of James Wetherbee (Commander), Eileen Collins (the first female pilot assigned to a Shuttle crew), Janice Voss (Payload Commander/MS1 identified on 3 August 1993), Mike Foale (MS2), Bernard Harris (MS3) and Titov as MS4. The delays to the mission probably helped Titov improve his Shuttle skills and become more familiar with his assigned responsibilities and tasks. Known as the `Near-Mir' mission, STS-63 was flown between 3 and 11 February 1995, the 67th flight of the series and the 20th for Discovery. As well as carrying the Spacehab-3 payload, the crew deployed the Orbital Debris Radar Calibration System-II (ODERACS±II), deployed and retrieved the SPARTAN 204 free flyer, and closed to within ten metres of the Mir space station on 6 February. Foale and Harris also completed a four-hour EVA on 9 February. For the ascent, Titov rode on Seat 6 on the middeck, swapping to flight deck Seat 3 for re-entry. Titov's orbiter tasks included a primary role on in-flight maintenance (IFM) and Earth observations and a back-up role for communications and instrumentation, photo and TV, and the RMS. His payload responsibilities included back-up duties for the Spacehab-3 module, and back-up for the secondary payloads IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC), and the Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE), located on the middeck. Titov held primary responsibility for four Spacehab-3 experiments Cosmonauts on the Shuttle (Shuttle-Mir) 265
and back-up responsibilities for a further seven. His primaries were Astroculture-IV, Charlotte, Chromex-06 and Commercial Generic Bio-processing Apparatus (CGBA- 6), and his back-up roles were for Commercial Protein Crystal Growth ± Vapour Diffusion Apparatus (CPCR-VDA), CREAM-06, ECLIPSE-Hab 3, IMMUNE-02, Protein Crystal Growth ± STES-03, 3-DMA and Window Experiment-01 (WIND- EX-01). In addition, he held responsibilities for 11 DSOs: 200B Radiobiology Effects; 201B Sensory-Motor; 204 Visual Observations; 484B Circadian Shift; 486 Physical Exam; 487 Immune Assess; 491 Microbial Transfer; 377 Shuttle-Mir VHF, responsible for communication with the resident crew (EO-17, Viktorenko, Kondakova, Polyakov); 901 Documentary TV; 902 Documentary Movies; and 903 Documentary Still Photography. 15 Cosmonauts on the Shuttle-Mir dockings In the three years between June 1995 and June 1998, there were nine Shuttle-Mir docking missions. 16 Of these, five carried Russian cosmonauts as members of the crew and their training for these missions is reflected in Table 14. By capitalising on the lessons learned from training Krikalev and Titov, a pattern was developed to assist in preparing cosmonauts for the role of MS on these visiting missions to the space complex. This also provided an invaluable database of training experience for direct application to ISS Shuttle missions that might include members of the cosmonaut team. STS-71 On 3 June 1994, NASA named the crew of STS-71 (Atlantis ± OV-104), the first Shuttle docking mission. 17 Previously assigned to the flight for ascent only were Anatoliy Solovyov and Nikolay Budarin (the Mir 19 resident crew), who would remain aboard Mir when Atlantis departed and returned the Mir 18 crew of Vladimir Dezhurov, Gennadiy Strekalov and American astronaut Norman Thagard. Since they would only occupy the Shuttle for ascent or descent, no crew responsibilities were assigned to the cosmonauts for this mission. For launch, Solovyov was designated RC-1 (Russian Cosmonaut) and occupied Seat 6 on the middeck, while Budarin was designated RC-2 and occupied Seat 7 on the middeck (cosmonauts Onufriyenko and Usachev also trained as back-ups for these positions). For the descent, Dezhurov served as RC-1 in Seat 7, and Strekalov as RC-2 in Seat 6 (Thagard served as MS 4 and occupied Seat 8). The returning Mir 18 crew rode in specially designed Recumbent Seating Systems, to help them endure re-entry and landing loads following their extended duration mission (a method used later by returning American Mir resident crew members and ISS crews on the Shuttle). This was only the second time an eight-person crew had ridden on the Shuttle (five returning STS-71 crew and three returning Mir 18 crew); the first was STS 61-A (Spacelab D1) in 1985. STS-71 flew between 27 June and 7 July 1995. STS-84 Veteran Mir cosmonaut Yelena Kondakova was named as MS4 for the sixth Shuttle docking crew on 22 August 1996, 18 six weeks after the NASA crew had been identified and presumably after she had completed basic Shuttle training. A report issued by the BBC on 8 November 1996 suggested that the only criteria for her 266 Joint programmes
Table 14 Russian cosmonauts as crewmemb ers on US Space Shuttle
missions 1994±2002 C osmonau
t Mission
Po sition
Orbite r La unch Dura
tion La nding EVA Notes
Sh uttle
Mir Pro
gramme 1994
±1998 Krik
alev STS-6
0 M S-4 Disc overy
1994 Feb
03 08:07
:09:2 2 1994 Feb 11 ± 1st cosmon
aut on Sh uttle; Spaceh
ab 2 Tito v V. STS-6 3 M S-4 Disc overy
1995 Feb
03 08:06
:28:1 5 1995 Feb 11 ± Near-Mir rendezv
ous miss
ion; Spaceh
ab 3 So lovyov A. STS-7 1 M S-4 At lantis
1995 Jun
27 app
rox 2 day s (So
yuz TM2
1) ± Up only ± tr ansferre d as M ir 19 crew Buda
rin STS-7
1 M S-5 At lantis
1995 Jun
27 app
rox 2 day s (So
yuz TM2
1) ± Up only ± tr ansferre d as M ir 19 crew De zhurov STS-7 1 M S-4 At lantis (So yuz
TM2 1) app rox 3 day s 1995
Jul 07 ± Down only
± form
er Mir
18 crew
Stre kalov
STS-7 1 M S-4 At lantis (So yuz
TM2 1) app rox 3 day s 1995
Jul 07 ± Down only
± form
er Mir
18 crew
Ko ndakov
a STS-8
4 M S-4 At lantis
1997 May
15 09:05
:19:5 6 1997 May 24 ± Sh ut tle M ir (S M )d oc ki ng m iss io n 6 Tito
v V. (2nd ) STS-8
6 M S-1 At lantis
1997 Sep
25 10:19
:20:5 0 1997 Oct 06 1 (05:01 ) SM dockin g mission 7; 1st
Russian Shuttle
EVA (EV2)
Kade nyuk
(Uk raine)
STS-8 7 PS-1 C olumbia
1997 Nov
19 15:16
:34:0 4 1997 De c 05 ± Science
miss ion;
Kade nyuk
flew as Ukrainian not Russian
Sh aripov
STS-8 9 M S-4 Ende
avour 1998
Jan 22 08:19 :46:5 4 1998 Jan 31 ± Shuttle Mir
do cking
mission 8 Ryu min STS-9
1 M S-4 Disc overy
1998 Jun
02 09:19
:53:5 4 1998 Jun 12 ± Shuttle Mir
do cking
mission 9 (last of serie
s) Inter
nation al Spac e Stati
on Program
me 1998
±200 2 Krik alev (2nd
) STS-8
8 M S-4 Ende avour
1998 Dec
04 11:19
:17:5 7 1998 De c 15 ± ISS-2A;
first Shuttle
asse mbly
mission Toka
rev STS-9
6 M S-5 Disc overy
1999 May
27 09:19
:13:5 7 1999 Jun 06 ± ISS-2A.1; secon
d ISS
assembl y mission Usa chev
STS-1 01 M S-5 At lantis 2000 May
19 09:21
:10:1 0 2000 May 29 ± ISS-2A.2a; third
ISS asse
mbly mission
M alenche
nko STS-1
06 M S-4 At lantis
2000 Sep
08 11:19
:12:1 5 2000 Sep 20 ± ISS 2A.2
b; fourth
ISS asse
mbly mission
Cosmonauts on the Shuttle (Shuttle-Mir) 267 Cosmo naut
Mission Posit
ion Orbite
r Launc
h Dura
tion Landing
EVA Note
s Moruk
ov STS-1
06 MS-5
Atlan tis
2000 Sep
08 11:19
:12:1 5 2000 Sep 20 ± ISS 2A.2b;
fou rth
ISS asse
mbly miss
ion Usach
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