Samarkand state institute of foreign languages english faculty II department of integrated course of english language

Sound imitation or (onomatopoeia)
New words consist of this type of word formation, placed in an action or object more or less energetically reproducing the associated sound. Let's compare the following words from English and Russian: Cock-a-dodoodle-do – ku-ka-re-ku, bang – bah, bam (strong blow).
Semantically, in relation to the original sound, many lonely population words are divided into the following groups: 1) words reflecting sounds lost by a person in the process of communication or expressing his feelings, for example. talkative, rude; 2) words denoting sounds made by animals, birds, insects, e.g. mu, buzzing; 3) words imitating the sounds of water, printing metal objects, movments, e.g. splash, scratch, swing.
Distinctive stress
Distinctive stress is the formation of a new word by means of the shift of the stress in the source word, e.g. 'increase (n) – in'crease(v), 'subject (n) – sub'ject(v).
Back-formation
Reverse formation is the formation of a new word by cutting off a real or assumed suffix as a result of a misinterpretation of the structure of an existing word. This type of word formation is not very productive in the modern English language and is based on analogy, for example: shoemaker - to assemble, blood transfusion - to transfuse blood.
Reduplication
Some linguists single out another type of word formation — reduplication. Most of the words formed by reduplication are informal groups: colloquialisms and slang, such as organ-organ, walkie-talkie, bastard, girl-chee-chee. In reduplication, new words are formed by doubling the base either without any phonetic changes, or with a change in the root vowel or consonant. For example, bye-bye is a doubling of the base without phonetic changes; chatter - doubling of the base with the change of the root vowel i to a; walkie-talkie - duplication of the base with the change of the consonant w to t.
As can be seen from the above examples, this type of word formation combines features of word combinations and sound changes. Thus, some scholars may consider such words as a separate group formed either by juxtaposition or exchange of sounds. The most productive processes of word formation in the English language are affixation, word joining and conversion, which we will talk about in more detail in this chapter. In morphology, productivity means the degree of use of the word formation process in a language. We could draw an analogy with productive worker bees: the most productive worker bee is the one that produces the most honey. Therefore, the most productive word-formation rules are those that are most often used to create new words in a language or language variety. As a rule, performance is directly proportional to compositionality, the degree to which the meaning of a new word is predicted from the meanings of its constituent morphemes. That is, "more productive" entails "more compositional", and vice versa. For example, an affix like {plural} –s is extremely productive because it can help with the plural of new nouns in English. It is also compositional because it constantly gives a new word the meaning of "more than one." If emailer is a noun, then emailers is its plural.
However, it should be noted that compositionality is not an absolute problem. The point is not whether processes or word meanings are compositional or non-compositional. Rather, compositionality is understood as a line: at one end of this line we find transparent meanings of words that are easily inferred from the meanings of the morphemes that make up the word; at the other end of this line are obscure meanings that cannot easily be inferred from the morphemes that make up a word. Below we will see several examples of the degree of compositionality.
Affixation
Affixation is one of the most productive word formation processes in English. In affixation, an affix attaches to a stem. All the words in the sentence Teachers dislike yawning students are affixed words. We can analyze affixes based on two criteria: according to their distribution, and according to their meaning.