Samarkand state institute of foreign languages english faculty II department of integrated course of english language

Compounding. Affixation involves attaching one or more affixes to the stem. In contrast, a join involves joining one base to another base. In the following sentence, the words in italics are compound words:
Janice spilled salad dressing on her new laptop.
Note that spelling is not important in identifying connections. Compound words can be written with a hyphen, such as "new", without a hyphen, such as "salad dressing", or as separate words, such as "laptop". The ratio of meanings between the stems that make up a complex word is of decisive importance.
Form of compounds. Each of the stems in a compound is itself a word of the language, and therefore belongs to a particular word class. However, the word class of each stem does not necessarily correspond to the word class of the compound word itself, as shown in the table below:

Stems	Compound	Wordclass of stems	Wordclass of compound
hand + bag	handbag	N + N	N
pick + pocket	pickpocket	V + N	N
pull + over	pullover	V + P	N
sea + sick	seasick	N + Adj	Adj
bare + foot	barefoot	Adj + N	Adj
run + down	rundown	V + Adv	Adj
spoon + feed	spoonfeed	N + V	V
over + shadow	overshadow	P + V	V
in + to	into	P + P	P

Figure Word classes of compounds and their stems
In Fig. Figure shows that the word class of a compound word can be the same as the word class of one of its stems, often a right stem (as in pickpocket, seasick, spoon-fed, and shadow), but this is not always necessary . . in this case (as in the case of barefoot, rundown and pullover). There is great variability in the correspondence of the word class between the base and the complex word, and it is this flexibility that contributes to the bright productivity of the word combination as a word-formation process.
Languages such as English allow simple matching of stems to form a compound word, as in the examples above. This is the most common process of joining words in these languages. But there are other processes for the formation of complex words, for example, connecting stems through grammatical words, as in the words “mother of pearl”, “chief of staff” or “black and white”. Examples include expressions such as mother-of-pearl necklace or black and white photography. Other languages prefer to connect stems this way, such as Romance languages such as French or Portuguese. The important thing is that words connected in this way, whether by simple comparison or by linking words, acquire a special meaning that is different from the meaning of each of the stems that make up the compound word. Compound words, like derived words, have special entries in dictionaries.
A compound word contains a specific concept. The meaning of many compounds is not compositional and can range from transparent to opaque on the compositional scale. This means that we cannot predict the exact meaning of a compound word by assuming certain relationships between the stems of which it is composed. Take, for example, the combination of meatballs and handball. They both have the structure N + N → N, and both mean something related to meat and ball in the first case, and hand and ball in the second. But while meatball means "ball of meat," handball does not mean "ball made of hands." Similarly, handbag means "a bag to be carried in the hand", whereas handball does not mean "a ball to be carried in the hand".
As shown above, the meaning of some compound words is unclear due to the peculiar relationships between the stems that form the compound word. But the opacity of a compound word can also be the result of semantic shifts in the base of the compound word. For example, the compound chalkboard was created at a time when all school boards were black, meaning the black base was used in a literal sense. Today, however, we can talk about green chalkboards and even white boards (although the word "whiteboard" was coined for the latter) without feeling like we are being paradoxical about the color of the board. The reason is that the black stem no longer represents the color "black" in this case. Instead, together with the board, it identifies a specific type of object.
Despite the opaque meaning that the first stem gives to these connections, there is a sense in which connections such as a blackboard or a darkroom have a transparent meaning: a blackboard is a board, and a darkroom is a room. The same cannot be said about the meaning of such complex words as pickpocket or pullover. In compound words of the first type, the second stem is central to the meaning of the entire compound word. We can rephrase the meaning of compounds such as “handbag” or “shoulder bag” by saying that they are bags of a certain type. Likewise, we can rephrase the meanings of such complex words as seasickness and car sickness by saying that they are both somehow related to illness. Joints of this type are called head joints: the second stem is the head of the join, and the first stem is its modifier. Among these compounds, two properties can be observed related to:
Meaning: the modifier narrows down the meaning of the head.
Word classsame word class as its head.: the compound word belongs to the
By these two properties, the meaning of a headed compound can be said to refer to a kind-of the meaning of its head. For example, a handbag is a kind of bag (for more on kind-of relations between word meanings, see section .The meaning of these compounds tends to lie on the transparent segment of the compositionality cline, compared to the meaning of non-headed compounds like pickpocket or pullover.
Since long links are formed by connecting other links, we need to consider hierarchy when forming them. Often decisions about the order in which stems are attached to each other lead to completely different interpretations of the meaning of the final compound word. We all agree that this example can only mean "car repair service" and not "car repair service". That is, it is formed by attaching stems 1 and 2 to each other, and then the stem. Likewise, can only mean "professional children's entertainment troupe" and not "entertainment troupe consisting of professional children"). That is, it is formed by attaching stems 3 and 4 to each other, and then stems 2 and 1 in that order.
But how do we make sense of a long connection like Singapore noodle soup? Do we mean "noodle soup served in Singapore" or "soup containing Singapore noodles"? Both interpretations can be clarified by using square brackets to indicate the bases that are analyzed together, for example:
The choice of interpretation may well depend on what we mean by “concept” in the sense discussed above for the meaning of complex compounds. For some speakers, "Singapore noodles" may be a concept, in which case parsing immediately comes to mind. For other speakers this word may be ambiguous, i.e. mean two different things according to alternative analysis.
In a demonstration episode on composite analysis, one of the book's authors played the role of the main character. Being new to Asia, I saw a poster describing the Red Dragon Boat Team. My first reaction was to wonder, “What color is a dragon?” Are you having trouble assigning a color to your dragon or do you think this question is inappropriate? The explanation for my confusion is that for me, the dragon boat was not a composite concept, so I did not know whether to analyze the red dragon or the dragon boat first. Think about how you would analyze a long and complex relationship, such as a kitchen towel rack, which is always ambiguous because no “core” constituent concept is involved in its formation.