System of signs

Laws of linguistic signs.

1) The signifier and the signified are closely related (Saussure).
2) The law of double division (A. Martinet, Hjelmslev).
The first division of the sign (A. Martinet): signs can be simple and complex. Complex signs can be subdivided into simples, each of which has its own signifier and signified. F.e. writing table.
The second division of the sign (Hjelmslev): both signifier and signified can be subdivided into the smallest elementary units. The signifier can be subdivided into phonemes. The signified can be subdivided into semes. F.e. mother – female, parent, adult. This elementary units Hjelmslev called figures. Phonemes are figures of the plain of expression, and semes are figures of the plain of content.
3) The main law of the sign / the law of sign conversion (С.О. Карцевский): There is no one to one correspondents between the signifier and the signified. – Нет одно-однозначного соответствия между означающим и означаемым. This law can be illustrated by cases of homonymy, synonymy and polysemy.
Cases of homonymy: топить лёд – топить печку – топить котят. The plain of expression is the same, the plain of the content is different.
Cases of synonymy: бегемот – гиппопотам. The plain of expression is different, the plain of the content is the same.
Cases of polysemy: выйти из леса – выйти из народа – выйти из затруднительного положения. The plain of expression is the same, the plain of the content is different, but united by a common idea.
Asymmetric dualism of the linguistic sign is an advantage of a natural language, because it allows the language to develop and each time get adjusted to the situation of communication.

The meaning of the word.

Lexicology has a special branch which studies the meaning of the word. It is called semasiology.
It is very difficult to define meaning. There are three main approaches to meaning:
1) functional approach
1.1 The meaning if the word is its use in the language (Wittgenstein).
1.2 In absolute isolation no sign has any meaning. It is only with the communicative function of the language that assign system begins to operate (Hjelmslev).
1.3 The meaning of the utterance is the whole situation in which the speaker pronounces it and receives a response from the hearer (Bloomfield).