Teaching English as a Foreign Language, Second Edition

language laboratory A classroom in which pupils in separate booths are
equipped with headphones for listening to a language teaching
programme either broadcast from a central console or pre-recorded on
tapes in the booths. Language labs may be simply audio-active (AA),
where pupils listen and respond to the programme, or audioactive
comparative (AAC), where in addition pupils may record their own
performance with a view to comparing it with the model provided on
the master tape of the programme.
langue/parole A distinction first made by Ferdinand de Saussure. ‘Langue’
is the conventionally accepted recognised system of linguistic elements
by means of which the members of a speech community interact.
‘Parole’ is any given instance of actual individual linguistic behaviour.
‘Langue’ as system, can only be inferred from ‘Parole’, instances of
actual practical use. See competence.
lexical item An item of the vocabulary of a language which has a single
element of meaning. ‘Lexical item’ does not equal ‘word’. Some lexical
items consist of two or more words, e.g. to ‘put up with’; some words
may realise several different lexical items, e.g. ‘bank’ of a river and
‘bank’ for money.
lexical set A group of words related to one another by some semantic
principle, a word family. For example, the names of colours—red,
orange, yellow…—constitute a lexical set.
lexis/lexicon The vocabulary or stock of lexical items of a language. See
lexical item/lexical set.
lock-step A pattern of teaching in which all pupils move forward at
approximately the same rate, carrying out the same tasks and
procedures at the same time—like soldiers marching together. See
individualisation.
look and say An approach to teaching initial reading by concentrating on
the general shape of the word and not on reconstructing it from the
sound-letter correspondence.
macro-sociolinguistics The study of the use of language at the level of the

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speech community, the nation, etc., concerned with language planning,
language policy, for example. Cf. micro-sociolinguistics.
marked form Marked forms are those linguistic items which manifest a
contrast distinguishing them from an ‘unmarked’, ‘neutral’ or normal
form. For example, mare and stallion are both marked forms—marked
with regard to sex—as opposed to horse, which is unmarked. Similarly,
old is the unmarked form in the age system in English—the question
‘How old is he?’ is neutral as opposed to ‘How young is he?’ which
presupposes youth and so is marked.
MCQ Multiple Choice Question (q.v.).
mentalism A view of learning and thinking which sees the mind as a non-
physical reality underlying observable human behaviour. Usually
contrasted with behaviourism, which holds that such unobservable
phenomena are by definition unscientific. Cf. behaviourism.
MET Modem English Teacher. A magazine of practical suggestions for
teaching English as a foreign language, published four times a year by
Modern English Publications Ltd, 33 Shaftesbury Avenue, London Wl.
micro-sociolinguistics The study of the use of language at the level of
interaction between individuals, typically concerned with such matters
as the level of formality used, and the linguistic matters of relative
status, personal attitude, etc.
micro-teaching A procedure used in teacher training wherein a small part
of a lesson is taught to a small number of ‘pupils’ for a short length of
time. ‘Pupils’ are often peers of the students who may or may not be
assigned roles. Micro-teaching is often video-recorded allowing the
teachers to watch themselves, and in the classic form of micro-teaching
there is a revise and reteach phase as well.
mim-mem Mimicry and memorisation. Usually refers to a largely
American method of teaching whose main procedures were extensive
mimicry and mechanical repetition which was supposed to foster
effective memorisation through imprinting the appropriate response.
See audio-lingual; S-R.
minimal pair A pair of linguistic items differing by only one feature, most
often phonological. For example, a pair like pit and pet are a minimal
pair since the only difference between them is the vowel.
modal verb One of the auxiliary verbs. Will/would, shall/should, may/
might, can/could, must, ought, need, dare, and used. They are a subset
of the anomalous finites.
model (1) The pattern of pronunciation or other form of (linguistic)
behaviour offered as the example which a learner should follow in order
to arrive at an acceptable performance. Thus RP (q.v.) is frequently
suggested as a suitable model of pronunciation. (2) An abstract
description of the nature of, for example, language, matter, society. A
classic linguistic model is that of Chomsky. See transformational/
generative grammar.

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monitor A term coined by S.Krashen to describe a learner’s self-conscious
checking of his spoken or written language.
mood The realisation of a speaker’s attitude to the content of what he is
saying by means of verb forms: in English by use of modal verbs (q.v.).
morpheme The smallest unit of language which is grammatically
significant. Morphemes may be ‘bound’ or ‘free’. Bound morphemes
are only found attached to some other morpheme. Thus boys consists
of two morphemes, /boy/, which can occur alone and so is ‘free’, and /-
z/ plural, which is bound.
MT (1) Mother tongue—the language learned at one’s mother’s knee;
hence the language in which one feels most at home, though not
necessarily one’s mother’s language. See first language; L
1
. (2) Micro-
teaching (q.v.).
multiple choice questions Test items framed in such a way that the learner
has to choose from a number of options in order to respond
satisfactorily. Sometimes there is an actual question to which four
different answers are suggested; sometimes there is a stem to which four
different completions are attached. The answers or completions which
are not correct are referred to as distractors.
national language The language of a nation, especially one which is
indigenous, and towards which members of the nation feel great
loyalty. It may be contrasted with ‘official language’, which is a
language authorised for use in parliament, government, education, etc.,
but towards which there may be little loyalty.
natural language Any of the several thousand known languages of the
world, contrasted with ‘artificial language’, i.e. a language specially
constructed or invented, for example, for use in symbolic logic,
philosophy or international communication, e.g. Esperanto.
negotiation The process by which in interpersonal communication the