The Classification of Words

§ 196. Modal verbs are characterized:

1. 
   By their peculiar modal meanings. The meaning of
   'action, process' common to all verbs is scarcely felt, being
   suppressed by the meanings of 'ability, necessity, permission'
   to perform an action denoted by some other verb.
   
2. 
   By their peculiar combinability. It is bilateral like
   that of link-verbs, but unlike link-verbs which can attach
   words of different classes, modal verbs can be followed by
   infinitives only.
   

You must stay here. He о и g h t to have come. I h a v e to be moving.
3) By their syntactical function. Having no verbids,
they are used only as predicates.
§ 197. As in the case of other parts of speech variants of the same verb lexeme may belong to different subclasses. The verb grow (see § 62) in the meanings 'develop', 'increase in size', etc. belongs to the subclass of notional verbs.
E. g. How quickly you are growing! (Hornby). In the meaning 'become' it belongs to the link verbs. E. g. He is growing old.
When the verb have means 'possess', it is a notional verb. E. g. How much money have you?
¹ See for instance А. И. Смирницкий, op. cit., p. 124.
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When it expresses obligation, need or necessity, it is a mod­al verb.
E. g. The Englishman ha d to make the best of the situa­tion. (Bennett).
§ 198. Verbs are divided into subjective and objective, depending upon their combinability with words denoting the subjects and the objects of the actions they name (see § 191). ₇ Objective verbs are mostly associated with two nouns (or noun equivalents) denoting the subject and the object of the action named by the verb. Subjective verbs are associ­ated only with nouns (noun-equivalents) denoting the subject of the action ¹.
In the sentence She sat up and kissed him fairly. (Ib.) the verb kissed is an objective verb because it is associated with the pronoun she denoting the subject of ihe action of kissing and with the pronoun him denoting the object of the same action. The verb sat up is a subjective verb since it is associated only with the pronoun she denoting the subject of the action.
In the sentence You are interfering with him. (Ib.) the verb are interfering is also objective because it is associated with the pronoun him denoting the object of the action of interfering. But there is some difference between the two verbs in kissing him and interfering with him. The first verb is associated with the word denoting the object of the action (for the sake of brevity we shall ca.ll it 'object word') direct­ly, the second verb is connected with the object word by means of a preposition.
Objective verbs that are connected with their object words directly are called transitive verbs. All the other verbs, both subjective and objective, are called intransitive.
The correlation of subjective — objective verBs, on the one hand, and transitive— intransitive, on the other, can be seen from the drawing.

0 В J E CT\I VE i	SUBJECTIVE
Т R ANSITIVE |/ ~/v"rfi\A N S I'T Т У £

¹ We have retained the traditional terrtis (subjective, objective) though it would be more consistent to call them objective, non-objec­tive, seeing that verbs of both groups are or can be combined with words denoting the subject of the action, so all of them are subjective.
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§ 199. The bilateral combinability of objective verbs with subject words and object words is not always realized in speech. In cases like The sacred white cat has been stolen (Shaw) the subject-word connections are not realized. This occurs only with passive voice grammemes.
• In sentences like The train was waiting (Abrahams), He never reads in the morning the object-word connections are not realized and such cases are treated as the absolute use of objective \erbs.
§ 200. As usual, variants of a verb lexeme may belong to different subclasses (see § 62).
Cf. He о p e n e d the doo'r (objective, transitive).
T/ie door opened (intransitive, subjective).
Add some more water (objective, transitive).
The music added to our enjoyment (objective,
intransitive). The figures would not add (intransitive, subjective).
§ 201. Verbs can be classified in accordance with the aspective nature of their lexical meanings into terminative and non-terminative ¹.
Terminative verbs denote actions which cannot develop beyond a certain inherent limit. The actions denoted by non-terminative verbs have no inherent limits.
Compare the two sentences:
He was carryinga box on his shoulders. (Hornby). Take this empty box away and bring me a full one. (Ib.).
The verbs to carry and to bring may denote the same kind of action. But carry does not imply any time or space limits when or where the action would naturally stop, while bring doe«. So carry is a non-terminative verb and bring is a ter­minative one. Live, love,_ stand, sit, work, walk, etc. are non-terminative verbs. Come, take, stand up, sit down, etc. are terminative verbs.
§ 202. As usual, variants of the same lexeme may belong to different subclasses. When meaning '(to) engage in phys­ical or mental activity', the verb (to)work is non-termina­tive.
¹8ееКау1ианская and ethers, op. cit., p, 79,
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E. g. I've been working hard all day. (Hornby). But when (to) work means 'to produce as a result', it is terminative.
E. g. The storm worked great ruin. (Ib.).