The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism
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The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism (Jason Rosenhouse) (z-lib.org)
(Moorhead and Kaplan 1967, 76)
In other words, what Schützenberger described as fundamentally inconceivable was actually just a simple empirical fact. Random mutations in genes really do lead to observable changes in organisms, and this was well-known even in 1966. To the extent that we are discussing the in-principle soundness of the theory, this is all that matters. Let us move now to the analogy with computer programs. If we make random changes to the code, the result is nearly always worthless gibberish. This is because the words of the language in which the code is written are inevitably highly isolated from one another in the space of all possible words. This point is more easily seen in the context of a natural language like English. If we randomly change one letter in a given four-letter word, the result is very likely to be something that is not an English word. It turns out there are roughly 4,000 four-letter words in English, but there are more than 450,000 possible sequences of four letters. Moreover, the tiny fraction of meaningful words is scattered more or less at random throughout the space of all possibilities. (There are certainly some regularities among four-letter English words, but for our purposes we can treat the arrangement as random.) If the meaningful words were grouped very close together, then we might hope that a random change to one letter might bring us to a different word, but that seems not to be the case, at least not in general. From these examples, we learn something interesting about English and certain computer languages, but we are not learning general lessons that have to apply to all languages. To the extent that the genetic code can be viewed as a language at all, it is a very 4.3 genetics is different from computer science 97 small one. The words of the language are triplets of codons, each of which can take on one of four values. That makes a grand total of 64 words, and every one of them is meaningful within the language. This point was made by several of the conference participants. For example, Lewontin said to Schützenberger: I think the answer is that you have over-estimated the number of absolutely meaningless changes that occur when you change a single nucleotide. If we list all single nucleotide changes and the known translation vocabulary between nucleotide triples and insertion of amino acids, and then we list for a given protein all the results on that protein of changing amino acids all over the molecule, we will find, in fact, that a very large proportion of those do not render the molecule meaningless in an absolute context. (Moorhead and Kaplan 1967, 79) Conrad Waddington later made a similar point: Before we go any further, I think that, first of all, we should agree how we are using the word “meaningful.” I think Schützenberger means that when he changes something in program space, nothing comes out at all. . . . But actually when we change something, some protein does come out; it may not be a very good protein, but some protein comes out. All proteins do something, so all changes in the program level have meaning, in the sense that they produce a protein, except for some full stop marks and so on. (Moorhead and Kaplan 1967, 79) This seems like a salient point. In contrast to Schützenberger’s com- puter programs, the genetic machinery does not always, or even usu- ally, jam in response to random changes. The genetic language is far more resilient to change than Schützenberger’s computer languages, and therefore they are not analogous in the relevant way. We can dramatize this point with an analogy. In Section 1.3, I mentioned having lived in the state of Kansas for several years. 98 4 the legacy of the wistar conference Kansas has one of the lowest population densities of any US state. When I first moved there, I was surprised to discover that once you left one of the state’s major population centers, it might be many miles in all directions before you hit another major town. I had grown up in the state of New Jersey, which is actually the most densely populated state in the country. Moreover, I spent most of my time in the central and northern parts of the state, which are especially densely populated areas. If you are driving in this portion of New Jersey and you leave a town, then most of the time you are immediately in another town. If there is no sign on the road to tell you otherwise, you will not know that you have left one town and entered another. Kansas is like Schützenberger’s computer programs, and Schützenberger himself is like someone who has only visited Kansas and not New Jersey. Physicist Victor Weisskopf perfectly summarized the discus- sion, showing some impatience with Schützenberger: I want to analyze the difference of opinion between Schützenberger and the rest of the world. This is, I think, the following: Schützenberger says that in the typographical space, the overwhelming number of changes that can be done at random have absolutely no meaning, and he puts in support of it the fact that if you have a computer, and you change the program at random, it always is destroyed. The other side says that that isn’t so. The kind of program which genetics has produced with the 3-letter code is such that it isn’t so. I think this is what Lewontin says, that a lot of changes, maybe not an overwhelming number but a large percentage, do make sense in the biochemical sense of the word, and here I think is the discrepancy. Download 0.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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