The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism
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The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism (Jason Rosenhouse) (z-lib.org)
(Behe 2007, 49–50)
Relying on certain empirical studies, he concludes that the probability of the malaria parasite developing chloroquine resistance by accruing these precise mutations is 1 in 10 20 . Bacterial populations are so enormous, however, that this small probability is not a barrier to developing resistance. Behe now writes: Species in which there are fewer living organisms than malaria (again, other things being equal) will take proportionately longer to develop a cluster of mutations of the complexity of malaria’s resistance to chloroquine. Let’s dub mutation clusters of that degree of complexity – 1 in 10 20 – “chloroquine complexity clusters,” or CCCs. Obviously, since malaria is a microbe, its population is far more vast than any species of animal or plant we can see with the unaided eye. Virtually any nonmicroscopic species would take longer–perhaps much, much longer–to develop a CCC than the few years in which malaria managed it, or the few decades it took for that mutation to spread widely. (Behe 2007, 60) He is now ready to present his main conclusion: Recall that the odds against getting two necessary, independent mutations are the multiplied odds for getting each mutation individually. What if a problem arose during the course of life on earth that required a cluster of mutations that was twice as complex as a CCC? (Let’s call it a double CCC.) For example, what 5.10 the edge of evolution? 155 if instead of the several amino acid changes needed for chloroquine resistance, twice that number were needed? In that case the odds would be that for a CCC times itself. Instead of 10 20 cells to solve the evolutionary problem, we would need 10 40 cells. . . . If that number has been the same over the course of history there would have been slightly fewer than 10 40 cells, a bit less than we’d expect to need to get a double CCC. . . . Put more pointedly, a double CCC is a reasonable first place to draw a tentative line marking the edge of evolution for all life on earth. We would not expect such an event to happen in all of the organisms that have ever lived over the entire history of life on this planet. So if we do find features of life that would have required a double CCC or more, then we can infer that they likely did not arise by a Darwinian process. (Behe 2007, 63) There is some frustration involved in following Behe’s argu- ment, since he never actually defines what is meant by the “com- plexity” of a mutation. However, an analogy will help clarify what he probably has in mind. Most dogs can be taught to obey simple commands. Some dogs even have sufficient intelligence to learn large numbers of commands. However, it is doubtful that any dog can be taught to respond properly to novel commands presented as sentences written on a piece of paper. Reading comprehension is probably just too complex for canine intelligence. In Behe’s terms, there is an “edge” to the level of difficulty a dog can handle. On one side of the edge we find problems that most dogs can solve, while on the other we find problems that are just fundamentally beyond what dogs can do. Continuing with this, we imagine an experiment where large numbers of dogs are presented with a series of problems that become gradually more difficult. We eventually find a problem that is not quite out of reach for dogs, but which only a minuscule fraction of dogs can ever learn to conquer. We suspect that any problem even slightly more difficult than this will just be fundamentally out 156 5 probability theory of reach. This gives at least a good approximation to the edge of canine intelligence. Likewise, life poses a series of problems to organisms. Some of these problems are readily solved by evolution while others are just too difficult. For example, everyone would agree that if just a single, simple mutation is needed to improve the fitness of an organism, then evolution is likely to find it. On the other hand, if the entire genome needed to be reorganized in a small number of generations, then we are probably beyond what evolution can do. Somewhere in between we find Behe’s edge of evolution. We now return to the specific case of malaria, continuing to present things from Behe’s point of view. The use of chloroquine by humans posed a challenge to the parasite that causes malaria. Would it be able to evolve resistance to the drug? Empirical results suggest that two specific mutations must both occur in the same organism to achieve strong resistance. This was barely within the abilities of what evolution could accomplish, but only because microorganisms have very large population sizes and very short generation times. One suspects that an evolutionary problem even slightly more difficult than evolving chloroquine resistance, especially for animals with relatively small populations and long generation times, would just be fundamentally beyond what evolution could do. When Behe refers to a “double CCC,” he means a problem significantly more difficult than evolving chloroquine resistance. He then argues that life routinely faces such problems, and therefore that something more than standard evolutionary mechanisms are required. That concludes the argument. We can succinctly reconstruct Behe’s logic as follows: 1. Malaria requires two simultaneous mutations to achieve strong chloroquine resistance. 2. Empirical studies suggest the probability of a malaria parasite having both mutations is 1 in 10 20 . 3. Therefore, a cluster of mutations twice as complex as chloroquine resistance would have probability 1 in 10 40 . 5.10 the edge of evolution? 157 4. There have been fewer than 10 40 cells in the history of life on earth. 5. Therefore, Darwinian evolution cannot account for the presence of such mutational clusters in nature, of which there are many. Now recall the two challenges we posed at the end of Section 5.5. We argued that any probability-based, anti-evolution argument must explain why it is acceptable to reduce probability to combinatorics, and it must explain why the small number at the end has any significance. Behe’s answers would seem to be the following: • The need for multiple, simultaneous mutations rules out any role for cumulative selection, and that is why we can reduce probability to combinatorics. • The need for specific mutations implies that we cannot dismiss the small probability on the grounds that something had to happen. It is like the difference between drawing any two cards at random from a deck versus drawing two specific cards. How should we reply to all this? The transition from item two to item three is vulnerable on two fronts. The first is that it uses a premise based on empirical studies of chloroquine resistance in malaria parasites to draw a conclusion about what is possible in any context in any organism. That is, Behe treats the empirical data he cites as though they tell us something about mutations, when a more judicious conclusion is that they are telling us something about malaria. A related problem comes when Behe starts multiplying prob- abilities. If we know the probabilities of two independent events individually, then the product represents the probability of those specific events happening in tandem. In this case, the underlying events are two, distinct, given clusters of mutations, each of which has a probability of 1/10 20 . Biologist Kenneth Miller explained the importance of this point in his review of Behe’s book: Behe, incredibly, thinks he has determined the odds of a mutation “of the same complexity” occurring in the human line. He hasn’t. What he has actually done is to determine the odds of these two 158 5 probability theory exact mutations occurring at precisely the same position in exactly the same gene in a single individual. He then leads his unsuspecting readers to believe that this spurious calculation is a hard and fast statistical barrier to the accumulation of enough variation to drive darwinian evolution. Download 0.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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