The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism
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The Failures of Mathematical Anti-Evolutionism (Jason Rosenhouse) (z-lib.org)
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in 2004. Tiktaalik is a fish that nonetheless has numerous reptilian features, making it a plausible transitional form linking fish to tetrapods (four-legged, land-dwelling animals). Even more interesting than the fossil itself is the reasoning that led to its discovery. Paleontologists studying life’s move from water to land had strong evidence from genetics and anatomy to suggest that this transition occurred roughly 350–400 million years ago. They then looked for locations where they could find exposed rocks of that age, believing that was their best chance at finding a helpful transitional form. Sure enough, they found what they were looking for. If evolutionary theory is as misguided as the critics say, then these researchers got incredibly lucky. On the other hand, paleontol- ogists who let evolutionary thinking guide their research seem to get lucky a lot. 2.6 paying a price for being wrong 51 In place of paleontology, I could have used any other branch of the life sciences. Our previous discussions have suggested how evolution makes sense of the data found by geneticists, anatomists, and embryologists, but there are numerous other examples as well. We alluded to some of these in Section 1.1, but they are worth another look. Ethologists who study animal behavior routinely use game theory models in their work. The idea is to view animals as com- petitors in a game for scarce resources and their sometimes eccentric behaviors as strategies in those games. Starting from this premise, mathematical models can be developed to make predictions about animal behavior in different situations. Researchers have had enor- mous success with this approach, and the logic behind many formerly incomprehensible animal behaviors has been revealed. This is inter- esting because the mathematical models are based explicitly on the assumption that the behaviors arose via prolonged natural selection. The success of the models is a vindication of this assumption. Epidemiologists routinely apply evolutionary techniques in their work. Phylogenetic analysis, which is the branch of biology concerned with working out the evolutionary relationships among organisms, has been used to combat outbreaks of diseases and to devise treatments for AIDS and influenza, among other examples. The daily practice of medicine has also been affected for the better, now that we better understand the processes through which microbes evolve resistance to antibiotics. We can also look beyond the life sciences. A common problem in computer science is to search a large space of possibilities for target points matching narrow specifications. For very large spaces a full census, where you just try every point, is impractical, and random sampling is also unlikely to bring success. An algorithm is needed to guide the search, which in this context can be viewed as a strategy for deciding precisely which points to sample. Since biological evolution can be construed as finding small targets (func- tional organisms) within a large space of possibilities (all possible 52 2 evolution basics combinations of genes), researchers had the idea of mimicking its processes as a search strategy. The result was the field known as “evolutionary computation,” which has had many practical successes and remains an active area of research today. For more than a century and a half, researchers have used evolution to guide their research, and they have been rewarded with one practical success after another. During this same time period, anti-evolutionists just stared off into space and accomplished nothing. Let us imagine a comparable case. Suppose a well-funded group of activists wages a campaign against hammers. They provide a host of physics-based arguments, complete with equations, claiming to show that hammers do nothing to amplify the force of your arm. They produce slick videos of people injuring themselves with hammers. They warn their followers, none of whom actually work with wood, that the hegemony of hammers is maintained only because tyrannical woodworkers openly despise them and their values. How might we reply to this? We could certainly take their arguments one at a time. We could point to the errors in the critics’ physical arguments, and show that a proper understanding of the relevant equations proves that hammers really do amplify the force from your arm. We could object that the videos only show what happens when you use hammers incorrectly and then instruct people in proper safety precautions. We could expose the smear campaign against woodworkers as just so much scurrilous propaganda. These are all good things, and were this case to play out we would no doubt do all of them. However, we could also reply by using a hammer to pound a nail into a piece of wood. We could then point to the results and say, with a bemused look, “It sure seems like hammers work. Good luck pounding a nail with any other tool.” This book is largely devoted to the first approach. We will dutifully examine the arguments of mathematical anti-evolutionism and show why they do not work. We will take their manifest errors as an opportunity to present some clear thinking about mathematics. 2.7 notes and further reading 53 That notwithstanding, the second approach is even more impor- tant. Scientific theories are tools that scientists use in their work in precisely the same way that hammers are tools that woodworkers use. Theories that work survive, and theories that do not are quietly discarded. Evolutionary theory works, and that is why scientists stick with it. Simple as that. The various anti-evolutionist conferences I attended typically showcased a bizarre mix of science and revival. The speaker might make a scientific-sounding point about geology or whatever, and the audience would reply with “Amen!” or “Praise God!” It was common for speakers to open their presentations with prayers. Anti-evolutionism is useful for whipping sympathetic crowds into ecstasies of religious fervor, but it is utterly useless at getting results in practical situations. Anti-evolutionists are much better at propaganda than they are at solving problems, and that is the primary reason scientists hold their ideas in such low regard. 2.7 notes and further reading The evidence for evolution has been laid out in many books and websites. Especially helpful in this regard are the website by Theobald (2012) and the books by Coyne (2009) and Dawkins (2009). Coyne and Dawkins wrote their books independently and published them at around the same time. It tells you something about the strength of the evidence that there is surprisingly little overlap between them. The short book by Rogers (2011) is also helpful. For a book-length treatment of the fossil evidence for evolution, see Prothero (2007). Prothero’s more recent book (2020) is also a valuable reference in this regard. It presents some of the major lines of evidence for evolution by telling the stories of 25 major discoveries in the discipline’s history. Isaak (2007) contains succinct refutations to hundreds of anti-evolutionist arguments. The book by Mayfield (2013) provides a lengthy and eloquent discussion of the power of a variation/selection mechanism to produce complex results, not just in evolution, but in other fields of human endeavor as well. Appropriately, his book is titled The Engine of Complexity. 54 2 evolution basics In my discussion of the evidence for evolution, I briefly mentioned the subject of vestigial structures. There is a common misconception that “vestigial” is a synonym for “nonfunctional.” This is not correct, though it must be admitted that some biologists who have written on this topic have not always been as precise in their usage as they ought to have been. Anti-evolutionists seize on this misconception to argue that if a structure serves even the most minor purpose, then it is therefore not vestigial and not evidence for evolution. For example, they would object to my use of the human appendix as an example of a vestigial structure on the ground that recent research suggests it plays a minor role in strengthening the immune system. But this trivial function is entirely irrelevant to the judgment that the appendix is a vestige. Biologists typically define a vestigial structure to be one that exists in a reduced and rudimentary condition relative to the same complex structure in other organisms, and the human appendix fits that definition perfectly. Tasked with designing a structure that does for the immune system what the appendix is believed to do, no engineer would consider using a shriveled-up cow stomach. The book by Shubin (2020) provides an accessible and up-to-date discussion of how paleontology and genetics, working together, are revealing the mechanics of some of the major transitions in evolution. Shubin’s book will dispel any lingering sympathy you might have for the unbridgeable gaps argument. Shubin discusses many examples of evolutionary cooption. The article by McLennan (2008) also provides a readable discussion of this topic. Schwab (2012) is a veritable encyclopedia of evidence for the evolution of eyes. The books by Land and Nilsson (2012) and Glaeser and Paulus (2015) are also valuable resources on the subject of eye evolution. The journal article by Gregory (2008) is a general reference on the evolution of complex organs that also includes a lengthy discussion of how eyes arose. These references are the justification for my claim that eye evolution is no longer considered to be especially mysterious. The older book by Dawkins (1996) is also helpful for thinking clearly about the evolution of complex structures. There are many books discussing examples from anatomy and molecular biology that are incomprehensible as products of intelligent design, but which make perfect sense if you view them as the products of 2.7 notes and further reading 55 evolution. The books by Avise (2010), Hafer (2015), and Lents (2018) are good representatives of the genre. The “senseless signs of history” argument is very powerful. For all the talk about how complex adaptations pose a challenge to current theory, when you look at how these systems are actually built, it is evolution that seems obvious and intelligent design that seems ridiculous. Anti-evolutionists have nothing cogent to say against this. Advocates for YEC at least confront the problem head on, gamely making the case that every instance of seemingly weird design is actually in some way the handiwork of a master engineer. Unfortunately, the weirdness is just too blatant and ubiquitous for this to be compelling. They also sometimes argue that some undesirable aspect of nature is a consequence of human sin, but discussing the merits of such explicitly religious theories is beyond the scope of this book. For the ID perspective on the “senseless signs of history” argument, we can consider this quote, from biochemist and ID proponent Douglas Axe: Another way of downgrading life is to assume the role of a bio-critic – someone who looks for faults in the design of living things. As one example, the giant panda has a protruding bone in its wrist that serves a thumb-like role, enabling the bear to grasp bamboo. The fact that this bone (called a radial sesamoid) isn’t a true jointed thumb like ours has led some people to view it as a makeshift adaptation that no good designer would employ. Not surprisingly, others argue that it is a good design. For my part, I find myself evaluating the people more than the panda. None of these people, however earnest they may be, have any deep grasp of the principles of design and development underlying sesamoid bones or thumbs, to say nothing of pandas. Download 0.99 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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